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The aim of this systematic review, meta-analysis, and meta-regression was to examine the effects of virtual reality–based training on global cognition and executive function compared with conventional training or information-based treatment in older adults, regardless of cognitive level. A systematic literature search was conducted using four databases. A total of 31 randomized controlled trials were identified. Pooled effect sizes were calculated, the risk of bias was assessed, and evidence was graded. The primary analyses showed a small but statistically significant effect of virtual reality–based training compared with control on global cognition (Hedges' g 0.42, 95% confidence interval [0.17, 0.68], I2 = 70.1%, n = 876, 20 randomized controlled trials, low evidence) and executive function (Hedges' g 0.35, 95% confidence interval [0.06, 0.65], I2 = 68.4%, n = 810, 16 randomized controlled trials, very low evidence). Meta-regression yielded inconclusive results. Virtual reality–based training may be more effective than control in improving cognition in older adults; however, more high-quality studies are needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined basic psychological need satisfactions for competence, autonomy, and social relatedness in physical education (PE) and their contributions to accelerometer-based in-class and total moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) across a one-year follow-up (T1). Participants were 523 students (girls 280, boys 243; mean age = 11.26 ± 0.31) and the data were collected using self-reports and waist-worn accelerometers. The key findings were: (a) competence and social relatedness need satisfaction at baseline (T0) predicted total MVPA at T1 via total MVPA at T0; (b) in-class MVPA at T0 predicted total MVPA at T1 via total MVPA at T0; (c) in-class MVPA was directly associated with total MVPA at T0 and T1; and (d) boys scored higher than girls on competence and relatedness need satisfaction at T0. These findings indicate that the need satisfactions for competence and social relatedness in PE are central components facilitating the greatest increases in total MVPA participation. To improve student outcomes, it is essential that all children receive positive and satisfying PE experiences. Enhancing the readiness and capability of pre- and in-service teachers through teacher training programmes is vital to raising awareness of the basic psychological need satisfactions behind autonomous motivation and greater MVPA engagement.

This study examined the predictive strength of selected physical education (PE)-centered physical literacy indicators on elementary school students' accelerometer-measured moderate to vigorous intensity physical activity (PA). The study was a cross-sectional study with a sample of 450 Finnish children (M = 11.26 [0.32]; n[subscript females] = 194; n[subscript males] = 256). Data on a set of predictor variables (motor competence, in-class PE moderate- to vigorous-intensity PA [MVPA], health-related fitness, and PE motivation and enjoyment) and total MVPA as a single outcome variable were collected. The entire model explained almost 30% of MVPA (R[superscript 2][subscript adj] = 0.298). Cardiorespiratory endurance ([beta] = 0.42, 95% confidence interval [0.22, 0.62], p < 0.001) and MVPA in PE ([beta] = 0.27, 95% confidence interval [0.09, 0.44], p = 0.004) were statistically significant predictors of MVPA. It can be concluded that, of all included variables, cardiorespiratory endurance and MVPA in PE were the most important factors contributing to healthy levels of total MVPA in childhood.

Background: Physical activity (PA) may benefit academic performance, but it is unclear what kind of classroom‐based PA is optimal for learning. Aim: We studied the effects of physically active maths lessons on children's maths performance and maths‐related effects, and whether gender and previous mathematical or motor skills modify these effects. Sample: A total of 22 volunteered teachers and their pupils with signed consent (N = 397, mean age: 9.3 years, 51% females) participated in a 5‐month, teacher‐led, multi‐arm, cluster‐randomized controlled trial. Methods: The intervention included a PAL group (20 min of physically active learning in each 45‐min lesson), a breaks group (two 5‐min PA breaks in each 45‐min lesson) and a control group (traditional teaching). Maths performance was assessed with a tailored curriculum‐based test. Maths‐related enjoyment, self‐perceptions and anxiety were measured with a self‐reported questionnaire. The individual‐level intervention effects were tested via covariate‐adjusted linear mixed‐effect models with school classes serving as random effects. Results: Changes in maths performance or self‐perceptions did not differ between the intervention groups. Maths anxiety in learning situations increased in the PAL group (effect.28, 95% CI =.01–.56); there was no change in the other groups. Subgroup analyses suggested that maths anxiety increased in the PAL group among children in the two lowest tertiles of motor skills. It decreased in the highest tertile. Enjoyment decreased in the breaks group among pupils in the lowest motor skill tertile. Conclusions: Physically active maths lessons did not affect maths performance or self‐perceptions but had divergent effects on maths anxiety and enjoyment, depending on motor skills. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To investigate the validity and test–retest reliability of a single seven-level scale physical activity assessment question (SR-PA L7) and its three-level categorization (SR-PA C3). Methods: The associations of SR-PA L7 and C3 with accelerometer-measured leisure-time physical activity (ACC-LTPA) and with the results of four different physical performance tests (6-min walk [n = 733], knee extension [n = 695], vertical jump [n = 731], and grip force [n = 780]) were investigated among women aged 47–55 years participating in the Estrogenic Regulation of Muscle Apoptosis study (n = 795). The reliability was studied using Spearman correlations with 4-month test–retest period (n = 152). Results: SR-PA L7 and C3 had low correlations with ACC-LTPA (rs =.105–.337). SR-PA L7, SR-PA C3, and ACC-LTPA explained comparable but small amount of variance of the physical performance test results. The reliability analysis provided moderate agreement (rs =.707 and.622 for SR-PA L7 and C3, respectively). Conclusions: SR-PA L7 and C3 demonstrated limited validity and reasonable repeatability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: This study examined the distribution of objectively measured physical activity (PA) and sedentary time of fifthgrade students during school, leisure time, and physical education (PE) classes. Demographic, anthropometric, and PA data were collected from 17 representative Finnish schools. Methods: To estimate the PA and sedentary time, participants (N = 592) wore wGT3X-BT ActiGraphs for 7 consecutive days. Comparisons were made between genders and different BMI groups. Results: From the study sample, 43.7% met the moderate to vigorous PA (MVPA) guidelines. Participants spent 62.2% of the day sedentary and 8.2% in moderate and vigorous activities. Boys performed more MVPA than girls, and girls were more sedentary during school days. Boys had more MVPA than girls in leisure time, but there were no differences in sedentary time. However, an examination of PA assessed during PE classes revealed no differences between boys and girls. Normal-weight boys engaged in more MVPA than overweight and obese boys. No differences were found for girls. Conclusions: The PA levels differ between different BMI groups in leisure time and during school but not during PE lessons. PA for overweight children should be targeted and compulsory PE time should be increased to achieve the PA guidelines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: This study investigated the associations of subjectively and objectively measured physical activity (PA) and sedentary behavior with academic achievement. We further examined whether aerobic fitness, obesity, and bedtime mediate these associations. Methods: This study included 970 children aged 9-15 years (52.3% girls) from 9 schools throughout Finland. Register-based academic achievement [grade point average (GPA)] as well as self-reported and accelerometer-measured PA/sedentary behavior were assessed during spring 2013. Aerobic fitness (assessed via amaximal shuttle run test), body composition (assessed via bioimpedance analysis), and self-reported bedtime were collected. Structural equation modeling was applied to examine the associations. Standardized regression coefficients are presented. Results: Self-reported PA had a direct positive [β = 0.084; 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.023 to 0.145] and an indirect positive association with GPA through higher aerobic fitness (β = 0.061; 95% CI, 0.033 to -0.087). Accelerometer-based PA was not associated with GPA. Self-reported screen time had an indirect negative association with GPA through later bedtime (β = -0.071; 95% CI, -0.096 to -0.035) and lower aerobic fitness (β = -0.039; 95% CI, -0.059 to 0.019). Nonscreen sedentary time had a direct positive (β = 0.193; 95% CI, 0.101 to -0.289) and an indirect negative association with GPA through lower aerobic fitness (β = -0.040; 95% CI, -0.063 to -0.016). Conclusions: Participating in PA, avoiding excessive screen time, and going to bed earlier may benefit academic achievement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Schools are in a unique position to ensure that all students meet the current physical activity (PA) recommendations. This study aimed to examine 1st to 3rd grade elementary students' accelerometer measured school day PA in the United States (U.S.) and Finland. Methods: The sample consisted of 200 students (107 girls, 93 boys; ages 6 to 8) and their school day PA was monitored with hip-worn ActiGraph GT3X+ accelerometers across a 5-day school week and the thresholds 100 and 2296 count per minute were used to separate sedentary time, light PA, and moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA). Results: On an average school day, students were engaged in MVPA for 20.0 min in the U.S. and 24.1 min in Finland. Students' school-day MVPA was 9 to 16 minutes higher during physical education (PE) days compared with non-PE days (U.S: 25.8 vs. 16.6 min/day; Finland: 36.3 vs. 20.1 min/day). Girls had less MVPA and more sedentary time compared with boys in both samples. Conclusion: This study highlights both the role of PE and other school day physical activities in meeting PA guidelines. Policy measures are needed to change the structure of the school day and enhance PA to ensure that students meet the PA recommendations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The decline in adolescents' physical fitness (PF) in recent decades has raised concerns about current population's possible future challenges with health and physical functional capacity. This study explored the associations between body composition, physical activity, maturation, and PF development in adolescents. Furthermore, PF development of adolescents with low initial PF was assessed. A 2‐year observational study was conducted between spring 2013 and 2015. Nine comprehensive schools and their 10‐ to 13‐year‐old students were invited to participate in the study (1778), and a total of 971 students (54.6%) agreed. Cardiorespiratory fitness (20‐meter shuttle run), muscular fitness (push‐ups), fundamental movement skills (5‐leaps test), body composition (bioelectrical impedance analysis), moderate‐to‐vigorous physical activity (accelerometer), and pubertal status (self‐assessment questionnaire) were measured at 1‐year intervals. Latent growth curve modeling (LGM) was used to study PF development over time. Change in fat mass had the strongest and most coherent associations with PF development during adolescence. Fat‐free mass, moderate‐to‐vigorous physical activity, and pubertal status were associated with PF development, although not systematically. Subgroup analyses showed that PF development in the low fitness group followed a similar pattern as the whole population. However, their PF remained significantly lower throughout the 2‐year period. The findings suggest that fat accumulation is an essential detrimental factor for PF development during adolescence. Actions to prevent excessive fat accumulation might help to prevent future declines in functional capacity. Indications that low fitness levels sustain during adolescence highlight the relevance of detecting these individuals and providing interventions already before adolescence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to investigate reciprocal relationships among students' motor competence (MC) (leaping, throwing, catching, jumping skills), perceived physical competence, health‐related fitness (HRF) (20 m shuttle run, push‐up, abdominal muscles endurance tests) and objectively measured moderate‐to‐vigorous physical activity (MVPA). Participants included 422 Grade 5 Finnish children (246 girls). Two separate structural equation models investigated paths (a) from MC through both perceived physical competence and HRF to MVPA, and (b) from MVPA through both perceived physical competence and HRF to MC. Model 1 demonstrated an indirect path from MC through HRF to MVPA and a direct path from MC to perceived physical competence for both boys and girls. Additionally, model 1 revealed a direct path from perceived physical competence to MVPA for the girls and from MC to MVPA for the boys. MC, perceived physical competence, and HRF explained 13% of variance in MVPA for the girls and 25% for the boys. Model 2 indicated indirect paths from MVPA through perceived physical competence to MC and from MVPA through HRF to MC for both boys and girls. Additionally, a direct path from MVPA to MC was found in the boys' group. MVPA, perceived physical competence, and HRF explained 48% of variance in MC for the girls and 53% for the boys. Results of this study provide preliminary support for the reciprocal nature of relationships among MC development, perceived physical competence, HRF and MVPA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]