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The source of Egypt’s copper supply during the Third Intermediate Period (1070–664 BCE) is largely unknown. Here we present new data from chemical (elemental) and lead isotope (LI) analysis of royal Egyptian artifacts of the 21st Dynasty (ca. 1010 BCE) – a period which until now was represented in the LI record only by a single artifact. Our finds identify the source of the copper in the Arabah region providing a basis for our historical reconstruction of the copper exchange network in the southern Levant at the turn of the first millennium BCE. We also analyzed two objects from the 24th and 25th Dynasties (8th c. BCE), which revealed a marked change in Egyptian copper metallurgy in both the composition (from Cu with traces of Sn to leaded copper with traces of As) and the supply chain (the Arabah ores are excluded). As the sampling involved museum artifacts, we performed X-ray imaging as a means to avoid sampling of any later metallic modifications and ensure the correct sampling process.

The so-called “Oddy test” has gained popularity in art and archaeology collections because it is inexpensive to use, and the results are relatively easy to analyze. However, the method is also subjective and does not identify the pollutants. Here we present a modification to the traditional test that addresses these drawbacks and aims at providing solutions. Activated carbon was used to adsorb the volatile emissions generated within the standard Oddy test setup. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis of the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) desorbed from the activated carbon detected pollutants within a considerably shorter time frame than the traditional Oddy test and provided both qualitative and quantitative data. GC-MS analysis of volatiles off-gassed during the Oddy test provided information about the VOCs from local brands of materials commonly used for conservation and storage of objects in collections. The use of GC-MS analysis of volatiles improves the Oddy test in a fast, sensitive, and quantitative manner.