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The Northeast State-owned Forest Areas comprise the largest region of resources in China. The transformation of the Northeast State-owned Forest Areas is due to various stimuli, such as policies, systems, and markets. In the context of ecological construction and the reform of the state-owned forest system in Northeast China, these have undergone a transformation in terms of economy, society, and ecology. However, a mismatch persists between employment and industrial structures, leading to hidden unemployment. This study employs the framework of hidden unemployment theory, utilizing the Cobb–Douglas production function to quantify the hidden unemployment rate, revealing the relationship between transformation and hidden unemployment. Through this analysis, the underlying causes of hidden unemployment in Northeast China's state-owned forest regions are scrutinized. There is a bidirectional causal relationship between ecological transformation and hidden unemployment, while there is a unidirectional causal relationship between economic transformation and hidden unemployment. Variance decomposition analysis highlights the substantial contribution of social transformation, followed by economic transformation, with ecological transformation playing a comparatively smaller role. Based on the above research, this article proposes expediting the reforms within the forest industry groups, facilitating the separation of governmental and corporate interests. Additionally, it advocates for strategic forestry development planning to effectively absorb surplus labor, and proposes three policy directives aimed at supporting forest area employees, including provisions for job transfers and reemployment opportunities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The article deals with the state’s educational strategy after the Great Patriotic War. These are actual problems for both domestic and foreign historiography. The author draws on archival and historiographic sources that shed light on how schools were provided with staff in the RSFSR, and particularly in the Southern Urals, during late Stalinism and Khrushchev’s “Thaw”. The paper analyzes the main measures taken by the administrative apparatus of the region to restore the network of higher and specialized secondary educational institutions, and to solve the problem of the lack of teachers. As a result of the comprehensive measures during the first decade after the Great Patriotic War, and with the help of graduates from pedagogical educational institutions, the quality of teachers changed for the better. Many teachers who lacked appropriate education and did not wish to improve their qualification were replaced. The article furthermore studies the reasons for the large turnover rate among teachers. Pedagogical institutes and secondary educational institutions in the Bashkir ASSR as well as in the Kurgan, Orenburg and Chelyabinsk Regions were transformed in accordance with the ongoing social, political and economic changes. The author identifies the factors that influenced the reorganization of the teacher training institutes and the optimization of pedagogical schools in the broader region. The article reconstructs how the Party and State administrative apparatus in charge of Russia’s educational system functioned, and determines the degree of its efficiency. Special attention is paid to the ambiguous demographic processes leading to partial or complete “hidden” unemployment among teachers in 1953-1957. The author concludes that under “regulated bureaucratic pluralism”, the supreme bodies of state and educational administration were unable to rationally use the reserve of teachers in the face of an expected demographic decline.

The first decade of the Polish People’s Republic (PPR) saw a radical increase in the number of workers employed in the industry. Many of the new workers were women, whose situation on the job market was much more dynamic than men’s. New staff was mainly recruited from the rural population. Workers were poorly educated and had little work experience, which begs a question regarding the economic rationale behind this process. Some of the new employees could actually be included in the category of “hidden unemployment”. Their marginal productivity equaled zero, which means that their work had no actual impact on the gross national income. Furthermore, such “unemployment at work” negatively impacts morale and work quality, leads to increased staff turnover, and essentially prevents workers from improving their financial situation. Considering the poorer socio-demographic characteristics of women compared to men, one can pose the thesis that the rate of needless employment was significantly higher among women than among men.

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The first decade of the Polish People's Republic (PPR) saw a radical increase in the number of workers employed in the industry. Many of the new workers were women, whose situation on the job market was much more dynamic than men's. New staff was mainly recruited from the rural population. Workers were poorly educated and had little work experience, which begs a question regarding the economic rationale behind this process. Some of the new employees could actually be included in the category of "hidden unemployment". Their marginal productivity equaled zero, which means that their work had no actual impact on the gross national income. Furthermore, such "unemployment at work" negatively impacts morale and work quality, leads to increased staff turnover, and essentially prevents workers from improving their financial situation. Considering the poorer socio-demographic characteristics of women compared to men, one can pose the thesis that the rate of needless employment was significantly higher among women than among men. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hidden employment in agriculture is one of the key outstanding problems in the Polish rural modernization process. The purpose of this paper is to estimate the extent of changes in the Polish market in a scenario where the share of agricultural employees in the total number of employees would be close to that recorded in European Union countries (5%). In the study period, the level of hidden unemployment in agriculture varies from one voivodeship to another. The level of agricultural employment and the amount of surplus workforce suggest that structural factors continue to have a strong impact. There are no realistic ways to reduce agricul- tural employment if the released workforce have no alterna- tive non-agricultural job opportunities which are conveniently located and match their qualitative characteristics. However, the 5% level used in the simulation seems attainable within a ten to twenty-year time frame, mainly because of the per- sistent economic growth and a shortage of labor experienced in non-agricultural sectors. The creation of jobs and the align- ment of qualitative (structural) characteristics between labor supply and demand must be a natural process resulting in a sustainable balance in the labor market which does not re- quire to be artificially maintained with public funds.

The article analyzes the labor-force participation in the fourth quarter of 1968 based on projections of earlier studies on labor-force behavior and the changes in the work attitudes of primary and secondary workers. Early labor-force behavior studies utilized regression equations fitted to data for the 1950s. However, there was an economic growth during the 1960s. It is possible that earlier regression equations will overestimate or underestimate the labor force for the fourth quarter of 1968. According to early labor-force behavior studies hidden unemployment among primary workers was found to be virtually absent and that their labor-force participation was inelastic to cyclical changes in labor market conditions.

The article discusses the methodological ramifications involved in measuring discouragement effect in an area such as Ozark Mountains in 1970. A measure of labor-market tightness reflects the degree to which workers become discouraged by adverse economic conditions. Unemployment rates is the measure frequently used to estimate labor-market conditions. However, such rates are not effective for measuring the discouragement effect in an open system such as in the Ozarks region. It would be hard to make a conclusion that the discouragement effect is not operative within the region even though employment rates are not particularly high.

The aim of the paper is to investigate the scale of changes in the labour market in Poland, assuming that the number of persons employed in agriculture would amount to 5% of the total number of people employed in the national economy, i.e. when we eliminate the potential surplus of employment in individual farms. The study was conducted on the basis of the BAEL data from the years 1995–2015. It was shown that there was a steady improvement in the labour market and a reduction of the level of potential hidden unemployment in agriculture, mainly due to economic growth and the absorption of labour force by the non-agricultural sectors. Research results let us assume that achieving the level of employment in the agriculture similar to that specifi ed in the study is possible within a period of several years.

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Copyright of CIVILIZAR: Ciencias Sociales y Humanas is the property of Universidad Sergio Arboleda and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Why was there a large growth in self-employment in urban China during the economic transition period? There are two hypotheses proposed to answer this: the disguised unemployment hypothesis that there is no opportunity to access the formal sector to gain better work, and the business creation hypothesis that successful business owners create new jobs for others, new business opportunities, and many innovative new products for society, as pointed out in previous studies. Using CHIP2007 and CHIP2013, this paper tests the two hypotheses. The main conclusions are as follows: First, generally, utilizing the imputed wage premiums, which were used in previous studies, the business creation hypothesis is rejected; the disguised unemployment hypothesis is supported for both the local urban resident and the migrant groups in 2007 and 2013. Second, the results that utilized the new wage premiums based on the imputed employee wages in the private sector show that the business creation hypothesis is supported when a worker chose to become an employer for both the migrant group and the local urban resident group in 2013. Third, the business creation hypothesis is relevant for the older generation group of local urban residents in 2013. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A growing body of research in entrepreneurship has explored the personality and social determinants of entrepreneurial intentions (EI). Most empirical work in this area has emphasized the 'pull' approach to EI, which focuses on the pursuit of entrepreneurial opportunities. In contrast, the 'push' approach to EI, which explains EI as a function of displacing events in one's life, has received little scholarly attention. This study contributes to the 'push' approach to EI by examining involuntary job loss as a specific situational factor that influences EI. This study investigates whether problem-focused and emotion-focused coping strategies predict EI among individuals who have experienced involuntary job loss. Furthermore, we test whether entrepreneurial self-efficacy (ESE) mediates the relationship between coping and EI. Using a sample of 266 individuals who had experienced recent involuntary job loss, we found that the use of problem-focused coping strategies was positively associated with EI and that this relationship was mediated by ESE. On the other hand, the use of emotion-focused coping strategies to manage job loss was unrelated to EI. Overall, our findings highlight the role of problem-focused coping in effectively managing the impacts of involuntary job loss. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article takes a long-view of the huge rise in disability claimant numbers in the UK since the early 1980s and looks ahead to the trends that can now be expected to emerge in an era of fiscal austerity and welfare reform. The article's central thesis is that disability numbers are best understood as part of a triangular relationship between levels of employment, unemployment and sickness. In particular, the big decline of industrial employment in many places has often resulted in large-scale 'hidden unemployment' on disability benefits, especially among low-skilled workers. Looking ahead, the UK's welfare reforms are set to reduce disability claimant numbers but principally by restricting access to Employment and Support Allowance, the new disability benefit. The main effect will be to divert substantial numbers of men and women with ill health or disability onto unemployment benefits instead or, more often, out of the benefits system altogether. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Significant numbers of working-age people in high-income countries claim benefits due to incapacity. This is conventionally explained as the result of people rationally 'choosing' to claim benefits, or as 'hidden unemployment' due to a lack of jobs, with claim rates much higher among the low-qualified. However, neither account considers whether low-qualified people find it harder to deal with an impairment in the workplace, and are therefore genuinely more incapacitated. This study explores these issues using 32 in-depth interviews in England in 2009/10. It finds that there are considerable differences in people's ability to respond to impairments, with some - but only some - able to avoid incapacity through workplace flexibility, adjustments, or changing jobs. Better-educated people had more of these choices, partly because education is associated with job flexibility (which allows people to work around their impairments). Education also played a direct role; it is not just the case that less employable people found it harder to get work ('hidden unemployment'), but that they found it harder to get suitable work, and were therefore genuinely incapacitated. It was therefore only some lower-qualified people who were left in a ' Catch-22' situation where they were not fit enough to do jobs they could get, and not employable enough to get jobs they were fit to do. Moreover, there were further inequalities among those with partial fitness-for-work limitations, with wealthier people having more choices around 'struggling on'. The article concludes by drawing together the implications for research and policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Papeles de Población is the property of Universidad Autonoma del Estado de Mexico and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Scientific Journal of National University of Life & Environmental Sciences of Ukraine. Series: Economy, Agrarian Management, Business is the property of National University of Life & Environmental Sciences of Ukraine and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The modern concept of labor hoarding emerged in early 1960s, and soon became a standard part of mainstream economists' explanation of the working of labor markets. The concept represents the convergence of three important elements: an empirical finding that labor productivity was procyclical; a framing of this finding as a "puzzle" or anomaly for the basic neoclassical theory of the firm, and a proposed resolution of the puzzle based on optimizing behavior of the firm in the presence of costs of hiring, firing, and training workers. This paper recounts the history of each of these elements, and how they were woven together into the labor hoarding concept. Each history involves people associated with various research traditions and motivated by an array of questions, many of which were unrelated to the questions that the modern labor hoarding concept was ultimately created to address. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of AStA Wirtschafts- und Sozialstatistisches Archiv is the property of Springer Nature and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

McVicar D. Local level Incapacity Benefits rolls in Britain: correlates and convergence,Regional Studies. There is considerable variation across British Local Authority Districts in the proportion of the working-age population claiming incapacity benefits, ranging from 2% in Hart to 16% in Merthyr Tydfil and Easington in 2008. These claimant rates are strongly correlated with local unemployment rates and self-reported disability rates. But spatial differences in claimant rates for incapacity benefits were even greater a decade ago. This paper describes the extent of this claimant rate convergence and discusses possible explanations for it. McVicar D. 英格兰地方层面工作能力丧失的相关收益：相关性与收敛，区域研究。就适工年龄人口中申请工作能力丧失的比例而言，英格兰不同地方自治区之间存在着显著的差异，如 2008 年 Hart 地区的 2% 到 Merthyr Tydfil 及 Easington 地区的 16%。上述索赔率与地区失业率以及根据个体自助申报进行统计的工作能力丧失率之间存在着紧密的相关性。但是工作能力丧失索赔的空间性差异在 10 年以前更为明显。本文描述了这一索赔收敛率的程度同时探讨了对其可能的解释。 工作能力丧失收益 地方自治区 残疾 隐性失业 收敛值 McVicar D. La liste des demandeurs des prestations d'incapacité en Grande-Bretagne à l'échelle locale: la corrélation et la convergence,Regional Studies. La proportion de la population en âge de travailler qui demande des prestations d'incapacité varie sensiblement suivant les circoncriptions d'action locales, allant de 2% à Hart jusqu'à 16% à Merthyr Tydfil et à Easington en 2008. Ces proportions sont en corrélation étroite avec les taux de chômage locaux et les taux d'incapacité rapportés par les acteurs eux-mêmes. Mais la variation géographique de la proportion de demandeurs était encore plus importante il y a dix ans. Cet article présente l'importance de la convergence de la proportion de demandeurs et discute des explications éventuelles. Prestations d'incapacité Circonscriptions d'action locales Incapacité Chômage caché Convergence McVicar D. Invalidenrenten auf Lokalebene in Großbritannien: Korrelate und Konvergenz,Regional Studies. Der Anteil der Empfänger von Invalidenrenten im arbeitsfähigen Alter unterliegt in den verschiedenen britischen Lokalverwaltungsbezirken erheblichen Schwankungen: von 2% in Hart bis 16% in Merthyr Tydfil und Easington im Jahr 2008. Dieser Anteil hängt in hohem Maß mit der Arbeitslosigkeit vor Ort und dem Anteil der selbst gemeldeten Behinderungen zusammen. Allerdings fielen die räumlichen Unterschiede beim Anteil der Empfänger von Invalidenrenten vor einem Jahrzehnt noch höher aus. In diesem Beitrag wird der Umfang dieser Konvergenz bei den Empfängeranteilen beschrieben, und es werden mögliche Erklärungen dafür erörtert. Invalidenrente Lokalverwaltungsbezirke Behinderung Versteckte Arbeitslosigkeit Konvergenz McVicar D. Prestaciones por incapacidad en un ámbito local en el Reino Unido: relaciones y convergencia,Regional Studies. El porcentaje de la población en edad de trabajar que solicita prestaciones por incapacidad varía considerablemente en los diferentes distritos de las autoridades locales británicas: desde un 2% en Hart hasta un 16% en Merthyr Tydfil y Easington en 2008. Estos porcentajes están estrechamente relacionados con los índices de desempleo del lugar y las tasas de incapacidad autoinformadas. Sin embargo, las diferencias espaciales en la proporción de candidatos a prestaciones por incapacidad eran incluso superiores hace diez años. En este artículo describimos el volumen de esta convergencia de candidatos y aportamos posibles explicaciones al respecto. Prestaciones por incapacidad Distritos de las autoridades locales Discapacidad Desempleo oculto Convergencia [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The growing number of discouraged workers--those who leave the labor market despite their willingness to work--is a new employment problem facing the Korean economy. The existing literature has attributed this problem to the internal aspects of the labor market, including the power of labor unions, technological development, and a weakening work ethic. However, such approaches cannot explain how this problem has emerged historically. This study emphasizes two alternative factors. One is financial rationalization that has burdened industries with the pressure of cost reductions since the late 1990s and, thus, reduced their labor demand. The other is the hierarchical structure within Korea's industries that has accommodated the new financial rule in a way that excludes workers from the labor market. The chaebol's strategies for cost reductions, particularly squeezing small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) and freezing further employment, have exacerbated the SMEs' problem of finding employment among young and female workers. The labor supply has shrunk, as families have protected these workers by withdrawing them from the labor market. This analysis implies that the global norm of financial rationalization becomes socially risky in Korea, not in and by itself, but because it is combined with Korea's local institutions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study deals with certain problems, related to the estimation of the hidden unemployment in Bulgaria. The designed for this purpose methodological approach includes investigation of the discouraged worker effect and involuntary unemployment dynamics in the country for the period 2006-2010. By making a comparative analysis of the structure of unemployed, discouraged workers and the remaining part of the inactive persons based on sex, age, level of education, existence of previous employment experience and reasons for leaving their last job, conclusions are made on the employability of certain groups within the general aggregate of the discouraged persons. The results obtained are used for calculating alternative rates of unemployment compared to the officially announced unemployment figures for the investigated period. The estimated expanded unemployment rates take into account the discouraged workers, who possess economic characteristics similar to those of the unemployed, on one hand, and the weighed amount of the involuntary underemployed, measured against the average duration of the actual working time for all employed - on the other. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper quantitatively investigates the connections between the growing number of young adults in Japan who are out of the workforce—not in school, working, or seeking work—and their employment environments and family backgrounds by drawing upon six years of data from sampling studies that were conducted from 2000 to 2006. A multinomial probit model is used to generate estimates of the possible impacts of changes in local job markets and varying family characteristics on the likelihood of young adults being unemployed (not working but seeking work) or out of the workforce altogether. The paper presents the most detailed testing to date of hypotheses concerning the factors that lead young adults to leave the labor force. I find that apart from the respondents’ educational backgrounds, their parents’ employment status when the respondents were adolescents and past household income are significant determinants of young adults’ employment outcomes. Leaving the workforce is particularly correlated with previously having a high standard of living and not attaining the same level of education as one’s same sex parent.

Over-dependence on agriculture (disguised unemployment) and other sectors like forestry has been identified as a major cause of poverty and a major consequence of the non-availability of alternative avenues of employment in the rural sector. Yet, it is difficult to identify the factors that have constrained the rural poor: is it the non-availability of employment opportunities or the high cost of availing such opportunities? Various studies have shown that rural India offers ample scope for non-farm employment, especially in the areas of food processing, horticulture, pisciculture, floriculture, and traditional artefacts. Rural people also possess acumen and expertise in these fields. In addition, these products have sound onshore and offshore marketing potential. Then what obstructs the rural populace from opting for these business avenues? This exercise attempts to provide a theoretical insight along with an empirical explanation of the factors that influence individuals' decisions to opt for non-farm employment. On the basis of a primary survey of 130 households conducted in two villages in Mayurbhanj district, the study reveals that skill-based education, income, possession of landed assets, and membership of self-help groups (SHGs) significantly influences the decision to opt for non-farm activities. When the opportunity cost of working in the field increases, people shift to non-farm jobs. The opportunity cost can be high when the benefits from off-farm jobs are high, which is possible when the cost of credit that is essential for these jobs is low. This article submits that the opportunity can could be increased by facilitating the timely availability of low-cost formal credit support, which could help in siphoning off surplus labour from the fields to the firms, thereby reducing rural poverty. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The academic literature on incapacity benefits in Britain is dominated by debates about 'hidden unemployment', particularly in relation to working-age men in the industrial and former coalmining areas. Although women account for two-fifths of all claimants, they have been given relatively little attention in the literature on incapacity benefits. This article draws on a representative survey of recent claimants of Incapacity Benefit (IB) in Britain to compare the situation of men and women aged under 60. It shows that there are significant differences in their characteristics and circumstances and in their routes onto this benefit. It is concluded that academic debates in Britain need to take into account the differences between women and men in order to reach a more complete understanding of the role of IB in the post-industrial economy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article considers unemployment benefits and whether benefit expiration has an impact on people returning to work. The authors focus on the labor market in Austria and state that people will seek out unemployment benefits for as long as possible, regardless of whether or not they consider themselves out of the labor force. The distinction between length of benefit payments, duration of unemployment, and time between jobs is covered. Austria's laws for receiving unemployment benefits are provided and the author states they are similar to those in the U.S.

This article analyses the design of optimal unemployment insurance in a search equilibrium framework where search effort among the unemployed is not perfectly observable. We examine to what extent the optimal policy involves monitoring of search effort and benefit sanctions if observed search is deemed insufficient. We find that introducing monitoring and sanctions represents a welfare improvement for reasonable estimates of monitoring costs; this conclusion holds both relative to a system featuring indefinite payments of benefits and a system with a time limit on unemployment benefit receipt. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the transitions between the labour market and inactivity in Britain between 1995 and 2004. A substantial degree of behavioural heterogeneity exists between inactive individuals, and the social security system appears to influence both the timing and probability of moving between labour market states. The results presented here suggest that policy makers should not be misled by the term ‘hidden unemployment’, into thinking that substantial spare capacity exists on the periphery of the labour force. In light of recent proposals to reduce the number of Incapacity Benefit claimants, it is important to note a high degree of detachment among the long-term sick and disabled, reinforced by duration dependence and poorer educational attainment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Copyright of Regional Studies is the property of Routledge and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This paper analyses the labour market and efficiency effects of various kinds of disability policies. It therefore extends Pissarides (1990) model of equilibrium unemployment with disability risk and disability benefits and allows for the improper use of disability schemes by the unemployed. The paper finds that recognition of this improper use can reverse the ranking of policies. In addition, it concludes that disability policies that reduce the participation in disability schemes tend to increase the rate of official unemployment. Only policies that lower the rate of disability shocks succeed to reduce both the participation in disability and unemployment schemes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this article is to develop and deepen the discussion on this topic and analyse the methods of measuring hidden unemployment. This is important for giving an adequate overview of the situation of the labour market in Estonia and the scope of hidden unemployment and its development in the transition period. The following tasks are set to achieve this aim: to estimate different components of hidden unemployment in Estonia and to analyse the factors that influence this phenomenon in Estonia and thence form policy conclusions. In the analysis data from the Estonian Labour Force Survey (ELFS 97) carried out in 1997 are examined. Three logit models were calculated (for unemployed, underemployed and discouraged persons). The most important findings were that there are no general factors which could influence open and hidden unemployment at the same time, and that the factors influencing the components of hidden unemployment differ—underemployment is probably influenced more by economic factors and discouragement more by psychological factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Explores the consequences of lower disability benefits on the number of people in disability and hidden unemployment schemes in the Netherlands. Possibility of improper use of disability schemes by hidden unemployment; Substitution effect between unemployment and disability schemes; Scale effect on total unemployment through general equilibrium mechanisms.

The article discusses issues related to discouraged workers and unemployment in the U.S. The incidence of discouragement varies strikingly across demographic groups. While the overall incidence in 1977 was 6.5 per thousand population aged 16 and over, the discouraged worker rate ranged from 10.8 per thousand for female teenagers to 2.2 per thousand for men of prime working age (25 to 59), and from 20.2 for black females to 3.5 for white males. As a rule, groups suffering from above-average unemployment rates also had above- average discouraged worker rates. This pattern makes senses, since high unemployment leads to discouragement over finding work. There is also great diversity in the time elapsed since discouraged workers last held a job. Because they are not currently included in the unemployment count, discouraged workers have no influence on the allocation of billions of dollars of federal funds to states and cities for such programs as public service jobs, youth training, and public works. According to the author, the disadvantages of reclassifying discouraged workers greatly outweigh the advantages. But a decision to retain the current definition of unemployment should not imply indifference to the private and social costs of discouragement.