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Language is a fundamental tool for learning science. This study highlights the importance of teacher knowledge in utilising language as a tool for knowledge generation in the classrooms. This case study examines elementary teachers' development of declarative, procedural, and epistemic knowledge related to using language, particularly focusing on how a three-year professional development programme centred around the Science Writing Heuristic (SWH) approach influences the development of these knowledge bases. Our findings indicate that the SWH PD positively influenced the teachers' knowledge development while there were disparities in knowledge development across individual teachers and knowledge aspects. We further discuss the changes in the teachers' knowledge and provide implications for future professional development and research regarding language use in science classrooms.

Research on teacher educators' professional learning has gained increasing interest within science education. Curriculum materials have been suggested as a means of supporting "teacher" learning for several decades but have not yet been examined as a potential tool for supporting the learning of "teacher educators." In this paper, we conceptualize a set of design heuristics to guide the development of educative curriculum materials for teacher educators. We illustrate how these heuristics guided the identification of specific educative features, which we included when developing prototype educative curriculum materials for elementary science teacher educators in content and/or method courses to support the development of preservice teachers' content knowledge for teaching about matter and its interactions.

This article explores the possibility of cultivating a just "habitus" through intercultural wisdom of women in religious education. Drawing insights from different cultural and feminist perspectives, it highlights the transformative power of the intercultural wisdom of women. Black womanist voices emphasise creating safe spaces for communal lamentation and mutual support. White feminist perspectives stress the importance of confronting privilege and actively engaging in solidarity with women of colour. Asian feminist viewpoints underscore the interconnectedness and interdependence among culturally different people. These perspectives intersect to form a vibrant tapestry of intercultural wisdom of women, offering valuable lessons for religious education. The intercultural wisdom of women can help religious education become a transformative space for people to cultivate a just "habitus."

While the concept of big ideas has been widely promoted in different subject areas such as history and STEM, its pedagogical power has received little attention in second language education. In view of this gap, this paper seeks to conceptualize and practicalize this notion by addressing two fundamental questions regarding the "what" and "how" of big ideas in English-as-a-foreign-language (EFL) classrooms. Specifically, the paper proposes a tentative, heuristic framework that views big ideas as a composite of three distinct yet interrelated dimensions regarding knowledge, domain, and learning. In light of the framework, the paper argues for the need to adopt big ideas as curriculum organizers in language teaching while employing an infusion, inductive approach to helping students analyze, comprehend, and apply big ideas in the process of language learning.

Despite the ongoing debate in academic circles regarding the impact of the arts on individual and collective well-being, there is a paucity of empirical research in this area. Nevertheless, recent studies have begun to establish a significant correlation between arts engagement and a range of positive outcomes. The objective of this study is to enhance the existing conceptual framework by providing empirical evidence of how early exposure to and active engagement with the arts can influence the development of character strengths within an educational context. A comparative design was employed in the study, which included 993 fifth- and sixth-grade students in Spain. The control group consisted of students with no interest or participation in artistic activities, while the experimental group demonstrated both interest and active participation in the arts. A quantitative approach was employed to collect data via a validated questionnaire, which was then analysed to discern relationships between variables using correlation techniques and non-parametric tests. The findings indicate a significant correlation between students' interest and participation in artistic activities and their perception of character strengths. In particular, engagement with the arts is associated with higher levels of character strengths linked to the virtue of wisdom and knowledge, including creativity and a love of learning. This research makes a significant contribution to the existing body of knowledge on the role of the arts in fostering character strengths and the application of positive psychology in well-being. It highlights the importance of integrating the arts into educational settings as a central component. Furthermore, the document puts forth recommendations for future interventions.

Learning about the Earth through geoscience education is important in order to make informed decisions about the future of the Earth. The aim of this study is to examine students' conceptual development on geoscience subjects based on inquiry-based learning. 7th grade students participated in this study. The researcher prepared lesson plans and activities connected with the aforementioned subjects in accordance with the inquiry-based learning model. In this study, the "Geoscience Concept Achievement Test (GCAT)" was used in order to obtain quantitative data, and it was applied as a pre-post test and also a retention test. Qualitative data obtained from 8 students, selected from the working group using the maximum sampling method, Science Writing Heuristics (SWH), interviews with the students, worksheets and assessment tests were used as qualitative data collection tools. The geoscience education program was implemented for 8 weeks. The results from quantitative and qualitative data showed that geoscience education positively affected 7th grade students' conceptual understanding of geoscience subjects. The results of the students' GCAT pre-test, post-test, retention test, SWH data, weekly interviews with the students and final interviews, revealed that the learning and teaching process applied in geoscience education positively affected their conceptual development regarding the subject of geoscience.

In this article, we explore a pedagogical and conceptual tool we have refined and developed for the fields of peace, social justice, and human rights education: "the possibility tree." Initially introduced in our 2021 book, we explore this tool in more depth in this article to show how such pedagogical and conceptual processes are key components of peace and human rights education praxis with greater implications for both research and teaching. Our aim is to provide an applied praxis-oriented framework for educators, practitioners, researchers, and theorists that are concerned with larger issues of peace, justice, and human rights. While we do not delve into the distinct theoretical concepts and genealogies (and their intersections) of peace and human rights education in this article, we use this opportunity to expand upon the importance of pedagogical and conceptual practices and their applicability, as these integral processes have ultimately remained underexplored in scholarship. To illustrate the potential, we also discuss how the concept of the "possibility tree" has been used by scholars and practitioners since the book's publication in 2021. We posit that tools such as the possibility tree are necessary interventions, especially as pedagogies and practices of peace and human rights education are often sidelined in broader discussions that privilege theoretical framings over implications for pedagogy and praxis.

This paper opens with a family anecdote in which my future mother in-law, when asked what wise advice she would offer undergraduate university students, replied, "I would tell them it's not going to be okay." Can we learn to keep engaging with the world despite its inevitable disappointments? I propose that Stoic philosophy, by "orienting" our "attention" and "courage," can help us navigate the troubled post-COVID world we share. To help make this more concrete, I describe a critical moment I observed in which a maskless shopper insulted fellow patrons in a grocery store for wearing a mask. I then develop the Stoic themes of acknowledgement (a commitment to the facts) and affinity (reaching out to others to build community). In the conclusion I return to the "maskless shopper" incident to consider how my two Stoic themes might help open a dialogue with this person. After discussing the limitations to such an undertaking, given the surge in populism over the last decade, I conclude with the appropriately tough-minded Stoic proposition that despite the obstacles, we must keep trying.

Introduction: Research in various areas indicates that expert judgment can be highly inconsistent. However, expert judgment is indispensable in many contexts. In medical education, experts often function as examiners in rater-based assessments. Here, disagreement between examiners can have far-reaching consequences. The literature suggests that inconsistencies in ratings depend on the level of performance a to-be-evaluated candidate shows. This possibility has not been addressed deliberately and with appropriate statistical methods. By adopting the theoretical lens of ecological rationality, we evaluate if easily implementable strategies can enhance decision making in real-world assessment contexts. Methods: We address two objectives. First, we investigate the dependence of rater-consistency on performance levels. We recorded videos of mock-exams and had examiners (N=10) evaluate four students' performances and compare inconsistencies in performance ratings between examiner-pairs using a bootstrapping procedure. Our second objective is to provide an approach that aids decision making by implementing simple heuristics. Results: We found that discrepancies were largely a function of the level of performance the candidates showed. Lower performances were rated more inconsistently than excellent performances. Furthermore, our analyses indicated that the use of simple heuristics might improve decisions in examiner pairs. Discussion: Inconsistencies in performance judgments continue to be a matter of concern, and we provide empirical evidence for them to be related to candidate performance. We discuss implications for research and the advantages of adopting the perspective of ecological rationality. We point to directions both for further research and for development of assessment practices.

Automatic generation of math word problems (MWPs) is a challenging task in Natural Language Processing (NLP), particularly connecting it to real-life problems because it can benefit students in developing a higher level of mathematical thinking. However, most of the MWPs are presented within a scholastic setting in a decontextualized way. This paper describes a prototype system that generates authentic math word problems (i.e., real-life problems) using authentic contextual recognition with controlled difficulty levels. Our innovative approach includes the acquisition of authentic contextual information through recognition technology, an instructional-based prompt generator for three different difficulty levels, and question generation through the Generative Pre-trained Transformer (GPT) model. We evaluated the performance of the system in terms of the quality of generated questions using automatic evaluation and human evaluation. Further, we assessed the usability of the system using heuristic evaluation. The automatic evaluation showed our generated MWPs were relevant for geometry topics and varied in sentence generation. The human evaluation found our system generated more realistic problems with satisfactory language quality and mathematical validity. Our system also produced more questions with higher difficulty levels based on human evaluation. Heuristic evaluation captured the usability of the system and highlighted the potential to be applied in a pedagogical context for mathematics learning.

The personalization of curriculum plays a pivotal role in supporting students in achieving their unique learning goals. In recent years, researchers have dedicated efforts to address the challenge of personalizing curriculum through diverse techniques and approaches. However, it is crucial to acknowledge the phenomenon of student forgetting, as individuals exhibit variations in limitations, backgrounds, and goals, as evidenced by studies in the field of learning sciences. This paper introduces the complex issue of fully individualizing a curriculum while considering the impact of student forgetting, presenting a comprehensive framework to tackle this problem. Moreover, we conduct two experiments to explore this issue, aiming to assess the difficulty of identifying relevant curricula within this context and uncover behavioral patterns associated with the problem. The findings from these experiments provide valuable prescriptive recommendations for educational stakeholders seeking to implement personalized approaches. Furthermore, we demonstrate the complexity of this problem, highlighting the need for our framework as an initial decision-making tool to address this challenging endeavor.

This contribution takes up and discusses topology as a relational approach to better understand and empirically trace policy mobilities in federal education systems. While topology echoes other relational approaches in its simultaneous focus on ongoing change and the "making" of stabilized forms (e.g., policy scales), it also brings attention to facets of policy mobility research that other approaches have, at least so far, considered to a much lesser extent. Such facets include the systematic integration of a "temporal dimension" (e.g., rhythms of scale- or policy-making) as well as the consideration of "digital/data space-times." Equally, topology reminds us that policy itself is increasingly becoming "topological"--that is to say, policy-making is increasingly ruled by movement spaces, logics of connectedness, and capacities for change, instead of formal authority, position, or transmission. Integrating these different dimensions into a heuristic framework, we illuminate what we see differently when applying a topological lens to policy mobility analysis in federal education systems, using the example of German education policies since the 2000s, particularly transformations induced by the ongoing pandemic, as a case study.

Engineering education has slowly been making its way into schools with the aim of promoting engineering literacy, which is central to learning and working in a technology-oriented society. Educators and policy makers advocate the need for developing students' understanding of the nature of engineering (NOE); yet, there is an ongoing debate on the heuristics that should be applied. In this article, we review and discuss current studies on engineering education in schools and the integration of engineering into the science curriculum. We describe four aspects of engineering fields: Structures, Machines, Materials, and Data, each uniquely characterized by the technology used and the artefact produced. We discuss the application of the Family Resemblance Approach (FRA) to the characterization of NOE, focusing on the cognitive and epistemic domain. Accordingly, we describe NOE through four categories: Aims & Values, Engineering Practices, Methods & Methodological Rules, and Engineering Knowledge, which can guide teaching and learning about NOE. Building on the FRA, this paper provides a framework for a continuous discussion on NOE and the theoretical and practical relationships between science and engineering.

Over the past thirty years, there has been a growing body of research investigating the efficacy of pedagogical interventions to enhance the historical literacy skills of primary and secondary school students. However, there exists no systematic review or meta-analysis summarising the impact of such research or the efficacy of interventions trialled. The purpose of this systematic review is to identify pedagogies that have a demonstrable effect on students' historical literacy skills, with a particular interest in those pedagogies that have a measurable positive effect on historical epistemological knowledge and skills. Findings of this review indicate that when a discrete historical epistemological knowledge or skill is targeted by a pedagogical intervention that utilises a discipline-specific scaffolded heuristic, there is greater likelihood of positive outcomes for student learning. However, the significant heterogeneity between studies, and the diversity in the comparisons being made by the included studies, make it difficult to identify the most effective intervention. This systematic review establishes the characteristic features of pedagogical historical literacy interventions from the available research reporting credible findings.

In this paper Johan Dahlbeck sets out to propose a pedagogy of "as if," seeking to address the educational paradox of how students can be influenced to approximate a life guided by reason without assuming that they are already sufficiently rational to adhere to dictates of practical reason. He does so by outlining a fictionalist account, drawing primarily on Hans Vaihinger's systematic treatment of heuristic fictions and on Spinoza's ideas about how passive affects can be made to strengthen reason. Dahlbeck suggests that such an account can help us overcome the problem of assuming that reason needs to be enlisted as an instrument in the educational endeavor to live according to the guidance of reason. The reason this is so is that fictions can use passive affects that are prosocial and that thereby strengthen the sense of community necessary for laying a cooperative foundation for successful joint striving. Dahlbeck suggests further that exemplary teachers are crucial to this endeavor insofar as they can offer educational fictions as imaginative and temporary placeholders for the truth, allowing students to act "as if" they were already guided by reason.

The growth of literature in student learning gain in recent decades has posed challenges to address the issue within the classroom. To further shed light on this scientific body of knowledge, the current study implemented a sequential explanatory mixed-methods design on a sample of 76 students. First, test data were analyzed using the interval approach to calculate gain scores for the group. The learning gain was small. Second, individual learning gains were analyzed using the pseudo-anchors identified based on estimated Rasch item parameters. T-tests were performed on the stacked pseudo-anchors. While most students exhibited insignificant improvement, 10 students exhibited significant improvements in their anchors. Third, a Wright map was obtained to assess the student's self-reported gains. Specifically, learning gain was the highest when the students used VOA special English materials. Fourth, learning data were investigated using the multi-facet Rasch model. In the qualitative phase, follow-up interviews were administered and student learning logs were investigated. Thematic analyses and learning pattern examinations revealed the different motivation levels and learning strategies among the students. The connection of quantitative and qualitative analyses provided a more conceptual understanding of student learning gain. The mixed-method approach can be implemented and generalized to other settings, such as the classroom.

While music education practice has moved towards greater diversity, the philosophy of music education remains rather Western-centric, with limited scholars drawing on philosophical resources beyond the West. This is problematic, as a truly inclusive approach to music education ought to embrace multiple philosophical voices. In this paper, we examine a quartet of approaches (that is, world philosophy, multiculturalism, internationalization, and decolonization) that scholars in academic philosophy have used to tackle the lack of philosophical diversity and argue that they have limited applicability to music education. We then forward what we term a "multi-philosophical" approach to music education, one that takes into consideration diverse philosophical sources regardless of their political, cultural, national, racial, gender, or any other divisional association. Through this approach, music education philosophy moves towards "boundarylessness" while maintaining, evolving, and affirming individual identities, with philosophia advancing from a "love of wisdom" to a "love of 'all' wisdoms."

Studies exploring homeschooling typically focus on comparing homeschoolers to conventionally schooled peers on a range of academic outcomes. Largely absent from the literature are within-group studies designed to identify experiences that facilitate (or hinder) homeschoolers' academic outcomes. The aim of this paper is to describe a heuristic model outlining ways the home environment, instructional practices, parent characteristics, child characteristics, and the broader context might relate to homeschoolers' academic competence. The heuristic model is attentive to the possibility that these relations might vary as a function of child characteristics. In addition, the potential for transactional and mediated relations is considered.

Scientific practices describe behaviors scientists engage in while investigating the natural world. Educators should be aware of different science practice frameworks to better understand their students' progression for learning science practices across the K-20 spectrum. For example, a high school AP instructor would benefit from understanding both the K-12 frameworks their students have already experienced and the future undergraduate frameworks their students are moving toward. We were interested in exploring educator familiarity with the scientific practices outlined in the Next Generation Science and Engineering Practices, the Advanced Placement Science Practices, and Vision & Change Core Competencies. In practice, all science educators are teaching the same set of core principles around which these different frameworks are built. Under this view, it is a missed opportunity to not consider or draw on different frameworks to expand one's teaching practice. Using a cognitive constructionist approach, we describe the implementation of the "Science Practice Frameworks Concept Map Activity," designed to (1) introduce educators to scientific practices contained within Science Practice Frameworks and (2) show educators that despite these science practices targeting different student populations they are, at their core, very similar and often overlap. We present data showing a positive shift in educator familiarity with Science Practice Frameworks and present examples of participant concept maps that help us begin to understand how educators perceive the frameworks and the relationships between them, ensuring that educators are better prepared to guide students through a comprehensive understanding of science practices.

Introduction: Reflection is established as important in coaching and coach development, however, no research has developed an illustrative device depicting an understanding of reflection in coaching. Instead, the concept remains poorly defined, understood, practiced and supported by coaches and coach developers. The purpose of this research was to therefore produce a device to support coaches' thinking -- their reflective practice. Methods: Data were collected over a two-year period during a high-performance coach education programme delivered by a National Sports Organisation. Using an ethnographic framework, methods included participant observation of eight three-day coach education workshops, and interviews conducted at the start and end of the programme with high-performance coaches (n = 11) and coach developers (n = 12). Findings and Analysis: Based on the principles of grounded theory, analysis led to the production of a heuristic device that captures an understanding "of" reflection across two axes: types of thinking and reflection content. Conclusion: On positioning the coaches' reflective practice data within the heuristic, opportunities for assessment and intervention to develop reflection in high-performance coach education are presented and discussed.

This study focuses on computer-based formative assessment for supporting problem solving and reasoning in mathematics. To be able to assist students who find themselves in difficulties, the software suggested descriptions - diagnoses - of the encountered difficulty the students could choose from. Thereafter, the software provided metacognitive and heuristic feedback as suitable. The findings provide insight into how formative assessment can be designed to support students during their problem solving and indicate that diagnosis and feedback could be helpful for promoting students' creative reasoning. In other words, the feedback guided students in justifying, monitoring, and controlling their solution method.

Learning path generation involves the computation of learning trajectories to personalize academic instruction to prevent school problems. The Educational Planning Problem (EPP) considers generating personalized learning paths by scheduling activities that satisfy expected grades while minimizing plans makespan. In this work, we propose two scheduling models with two new activity duration functions incorporating student stress and sequence dependence to mimic learning effects and increase personalization. We also developed a metaheuristic algorithm to solve real-size instances composed of a greedy randomized adaptive search procedure enhanced by a variable neighborhood search. Experimental results validate the efficiency of our approach and the importance of considering stress in learning trajectories personalization.

The purpose of this study was twofold. First, to explore middle and high school students' intuitively-based (mis)conceptions in probability, particularly availability and representativeness heuristics. Second, to investigate teachers' awareness of these intuitively-based (mis)conceptions and the effectiveness of their instructional practices to support students' understanding of probability beyond heuristics. The participants were two middle school mathematics teachers, three high school mathematics teachers and their students. Data were collected through a diagnostic test administered to students as a pretest and posttest, interviews with the teachers and two students from each class and classroom observations. The findings indicated the existence of intuitively-based (mis)conceptions regarding availability and representativeness heuristics among middle and high school students. In general, the teachers did not consider the students' intuitions and difficulties in probability in their instructions. Not only did they rarely guide students to analyze and solve the tasks coherently and deliberately, but they also did not discuss students' intuitively-based (mis)conceptions. The results highlighted that if teachers do not attend to student thinking and change their instructional practices accordingly, their knowledge about students' difficulties will not necessarily help students overcome their intuitions and attain a probabilistic way of thinking.

Empirical research on teachers' professional knowledge is mostly conducted worldwide with reference to the construct 'pedagogical content knowledge' (PCK) introduced by Lee S. Shulman. In the 'Consensus Model' (CM) and the 'Refined Consensus Model' (RCM), PCK was further developed and differentiated. Nevertheless, neither PCK nor CM and RCM adequately capture the complexity of teachers' professional knowledge. Thus, educational-theoretical foundations and goals of subject-specific teaching and learning are not sufficiently taken into account. The same applies to personal, emotional and reflective goals of subject-matter education. Against this background, we propose a more comprehensive model, which we call "subject-specific didactic knowledge" (SDK) and which is based on the distinction between two complementary basic forms of subject-specific education (SME): a functional form of SME in the tradition of PCK and literacy (OECD / PISA) and a personal form of SME, which is characterized by the German educational tradition (sensu Wilhelm von Humboldt) and the US-American philosophy of education (sensu George Herbert Mead and John Dewey). We illustrate the practical implications of this approach for subject-matter education and its investigation, using examples from empirical research in curricular based models of teaching and learning in Germany and other countries.

Loop-based intelligent tutoring systems (ITSs) support the learning process using a step-by-step problem-solving approach. A limitation of ITSs is that few contents are compatible with this approach. On the other hand, recommendation systems can recommend different types of content but ignore the fine-grained concepts typical of the step-by-step approach. This work contributes to the solution of this state-of-the-art challenge by proposing an approach for the recommendation of learning objects from different areas of knowledge, considering the refined concepts of ITSs. To deal with this challenge, we formulate the learning object recommendation problem as the set covering problem that belongs to the NP-hard class problems. An exact algorithm and a greedy heuristic were properly adapted, resulting in a promising approach to solve these problems, as shown by the results. This resulted in more personalised content for students using collaborative filtering and an ontology that models their knowledge, learning styles and search parameters.

This study is among the few that attempt to connect two popular topics, the rapid growth of Chinese higher education and the shifting China-US university relations. Now both the Chinese and US higher education are among the top systems in the world--in terms of their sizes and standards. While Chinese and American university ties have been among the most important higher education relations, they now move towards decoupling. Against this backdrop, this study situates the growth of Chinese higher education and China-US university relations in the discourse of a global higher education ecosystem, and explores what China-US university relations would mean to this global ecosystem, how they may evolve, as well as the implications for the global ecosystem. This study draws on Marginson's four heuristic narratives explaining science inquiries as a global space of activity and perception, and develops an analytical lens to apply to data collected from relevant databases and literature in order to reimagine China-US university relations in the various models. Finally, this study maintains that the universities in both countries share the obligation and responsibility to work together for sustaining and nourishing this global higher education ecosystem, particularly in an Anthropocene epoch.

This paper investigates the concepts of hope, despair and the radical imagination, driven by the following questions: Can we exist beyond the binaries of hope and despair, two key concepts that drive educational practices? What is the radical imagination and what are the conditions for it to be put to work in educational spaces? First, education is explored as a hyper object that is owned, imagined and practiced collectively. The semiotic square is introduced as a heuristic tool to illustrate the limitations of the binary opposition between hope and despair, and allows for an exploration of what is possible when these binaries are being set aside. The radical imagination then, is described as a collective practice that is radical in the sense that alternative social forms can always be imagined once we acknowledge that every social form is the result of the collective imagination. Finally, the paper explores conceptual as well as practical ideas that underpin Education for Uprising which is understood as the emergence of micro-political, autonomous spaces of direct action where community, solidarity and self-organization are key principles. Education for Uprising allows us to radically reimagine how we view education and to actively engage in alternative world-making.

The technology of automated short answer grading (ASAG) can efficiently process answers according to human-prepared grading examples. Computer-assisted acquisition of grading examples uses a computer algorithm to sample real student responses for potentially good examples. The process is critical for optimizing the grading accuracy of machine learning models given a budget of human effort and the appeal of ASAG to online learning providers. This paper presents a novel method called short answer grading with active learning (SAGAL) that features a unified formulation comprising the heuristics for identifying potentially optimal examples of representative answers, borderline answers, and anomalous answers. The method is based on active learning, which iteratively samples good examples and queries for annotation to increase the sampling accuracy. SAGAL has been evaluated with three different public datasets of distinctive characteristics. The results show that the resulting models generally outperform the baseline semi-supervised learning methods on the same number of grading examples.

Offering a heuristic to apprentice young children into the disciplines, we examine how one multiage classroom teacher leveraged the resources of personal digital inquiry to forward students' knowledge building.

Metaheuristics are optimization algorithms that efficiently solve a variety of complex combinatorial problems. In psychological research, metaheuristics have been applied in short-scale construction and model specification search. In the present study, we propose a bee swarm optimization (BSO) algorithm to explore the structure underlying a psychological measurement instrument. The algorithm assigns items to an unknown number of nested factors in a confirmatory bifactor model, while simultaneously selecting items for the final scale. To achieve this, the algorithm follows the biological template of bees' foraging behavior: Scout bees explore new food sources, whereas onlooker bees search in the vicinity of previously explored, promising food sources. Analogously, scout bees in BSO introduce major changes to a model specification (e.g., adding or removing a specific factor), whereas onlooker bees only make minor changes (e.g., adding an item to a factor or swapping items between specific factors). Through this division of labor in an artificial bee colony, the algorithm aims to strike a balance between two opposing strategies diversification (or exploration) versus intensification (or exploitation). We demonstrate the usefulness of the algorithm to find the underlying structure in two empirical data sets (Holzinger-Swineford and short dark triad questionnaire, SDQ3). Furthermore, we illustrate the influence of relevant hyperparameters such as the number of bees in the hive, the percentage of scouts to onlookers, and the number of top solutions to be followed. Finally, useful applications of the new algorithm are discussed, as well as limitations and possible future research opportunities.

Language teacher identity (LTI) plays a significant role at various stages of a professional career. Yet, teacher preparation programs address LTI differently. The Certificate of English Language Teaching to Adults (CELTA) is the most widely recognized initial qualification. Examining how LTI is constructed during and after the acquisition of the CELTA is needed to expand understanding of the LTI knowledge base associated with these programs and the complex nature of LTI in general. Framed within situated learning perspective, this longitudinal study conceptualizes LTI as an interplay between language teacher cognition and teacher learning. It aims to advance LTI research by utilizing the reflective conversation heuristic to examine the LTI construction of a novice teacher during and after the CELTA. Findings reveal changes at the three levels of the reflective conversation heuristic and point to the utility of the heuristic as a novel approach to supporting identity construction.

This paper proposes a novel framework for systematic reviews, the "conceptual systematic review" (CSR), incorporating elements of content analysis that often implicitly precede synthesising research but are rarely made explicit. We argue that a CSR has the possibility to conceptually map a "tangled term," to prepare systematic reviews, to advance interdisciplinary communication, and to offer guidance in tangled fields of scientific discourse. The proposed methodological framework involves a six-stage procedure aimed at systematically unravelling tangled terms through the deductive--inductive coding of a systematically retrieved literature corpus, thereby going beyond the quantitative synthesis of research findings. We call the elements of such a framework "heuristics," "classifications," and "systematics"; they provide insight into the quality of term disentanglement and can be viewed hierarchically: heuristics do not (necessarily) satisfy any quality criteria, classifications adhere to "analytical quality criteria," and systematics also meet "empirical quality criteria." The six quality criteria through which the quality of a CSR can be made explicit are introduced to allow for professional scrutiny and critique. It is argued that making conceptual elements of systematic reviews explicit is especially relevant in the field of educational research. Finally, we discuss the relation of the CSR to similar methods and address weaknesses in the proposed framework.

National standards that centre on the underpinning epistemic practices of the discipline has emphasised the need for teachers to focus much more on knowledge generation approaches to learning. Adopting a complexity perspective, we attempt to understand how teachers shift over time by examining their epistemic orientation to knowledge generation and their understanding of the nature of the epistemic tools of language, dialogue and argument that underpin these environments. Ninety-five teachers participated in a 2-year professional development programme to implement the Science Writing Heuristic (SWH) approach -- a recognised generative learning approach. Using a longitudinal latent profile analysis of four waves of data, three different teacher profiles emerged (low, medium and high). Teacher transition to higher profiles was not uniform, took time, and required them to engage with the epistemic systems of orientation and tools. The results highlight that teacher PD needs to be tailored to promote richer transitions to implementing generative learning environments.

Classical automated test assembly (ATA) methods assume fixed and known coefficients for the constraints and the objective function. This hypothesis is not true for the estimates of item response theory parameters, which are crucial elements in test assembly classical models. To account for uncertainty in ATA, we propose a chance-constrained version of the maximin ATA model, which allows maximizing the a-quantile of the sampling distribution of the test information function obtained by applying the bootstrap on the item parameter estimation. A heuristic inspired by the simulated annealing optimization technique is implemented to solve the ATA model. The validity of the proposed approach is empirically demonstrated by a simulation study. The applicability is proven by using the real responses to the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) 2015 science test.

Contribution: This article describes the process used to create a questionnaire to evaluate the usability of mobile learning applications (CECAM). The questionnaire includes specific questions to assess user interface usability and pedagogical usability. Background: Nowadays, mobile applications are expanding rapidly and are commonly used in educational institutions to support the learning and teaching process. But the possible deficient usability could decrease the utility of learning activities and the student's motivation. Therefore, careful planning and design by the developer are required, along with a usability evaluation of the applications. Research Questions: How could an instrument be developed to evaluate the usability of m-learning applications that combine technical and pedagogical aspects? How can the quality of the developed instrument be determined? Methodology: A structured questionnaire was created like a measuring tool to evaluate and design m-learning applications. Different statistical techniques, including reliability and validity assessments, were employed to evaluate the quality of the instrument, which is determined through the calibration of the CECAM survey. Findings: After the validity analysis of the questionnaire, a scale with 56 items was obtained, with an alpha reliability coefficient of 0.911 (an excellent measuring scale). It pretends to be used by teachers to design or evaluate m-learning applications, improve their usability, and enhance the students' learning experience.

Ancient Chinese civilisation developed two ideas about the ordering of large human spaces. The first was tianxia or 'all under heaven', the inclusive and cosmopolitan world as a whole, with no exterior, and governance on the basis of shared values and benefits, which first shaped statecraft in the Western Zhou dynasty (1047-1771 BCE). Second, the centralised nation-state which emerged in the Qin dynasty (221-206 BCE). Both strands have been influential through Chinese history. In the last twenty years discussion of tianxia has revived, especially through Zhao Tingyang, stimulated by globalisation and the need for practical relations beyond the nation state. This paper proposes one version of tianxia as a heuristic for understanding, rethinking and remaking ethical relations in worldwide higher education. It reviews different understandings of tianxia in China, identifies a world-centred (rather than China-centred) tianxia, and discusses the potentials of tianxia in higher education. Tianxia is appropriate to world higher education because of its spatiality and its ethical commitment to universal benefit in diverse settings on the basis of mutual respect. The article suggests four clusters of relational values that could constitute a tianxia order in higher education, and compares tianxia to existing practices of globalisation.

Despite representations' central role in conveying chemical phenomena, mastering them is not trivial, given the wide variety of different conventions to interpret and use them. Furthermore, instructional approaches and materials may overlook explicit discussion on how students should reason with representations. To gather evidence that could guide improvements in teaching strategies and the creation of more effective instructional materials, we explored how students use Lewis structures to make inferences about stability. Through interviews with twenty-eight organic chemistry students, we have captured a range of resources that they employed, including the features of Lewis structures they paid attention to, the conceptual resources they activated, and the sophistication of their explanations. We found that students referenced all the explicit features of the provided Lewis structures but primarily attributed stability to the unique eye-catching features of each representation. Importantly, the surface features to which students attended impacted the conceptual resources they activated and their reasoning. Specifically, some students misapplied chemical principles to make justifications that fit their correct or incorrect claims about stability. Moreover, students primarily relied on lower-level reasoning and heuristics when constructing explanations. These findings underscore the importance of probing student reasoning so that instruction and assessments can be tailored to enhance students' ability to effectively use representations to reason about chemical phenomena. By understanding the reasoning patterns students adopt, educators can develop targeted strategies that promote deeper understanding and productive use of chemical representations.

Multiple-choice questions have become ubiquitous in educational measurement because the format allows for efficient and accurate scoring. Nonetheless, there remains continued interest in constructed-response formats. This interest has driven efforts to develop computer-based scoring procedures that can accurately and efficiently score these items. Early procedures were typically based on surface features of the responses or simple matching procedures, but recent developments in natural language processing have allowed for much more sophisticated approaches. This paper reports on a state-of-the-art methodology for scoring short answer questions supported by a large language model. Responses were collected in the context of a high-stakes test for medical students. More than 35,000 responses were collected across 71 studied items. Aggregated across all responses the proportion of agreement with human scores ranged from 0.97 to 0.99 (depending on specifics such as training sample size). In addition to reporting detailed results, the paper discusses practical issues that require consideration when adopting this type of scoring system.

Vocational education and training (VET) and higher education serve different purposes and pursue different logics. However, in view of the increase of qualification requirements for skilled workers, many education systems are responding by linking VET to higher education. Therefore, the borders between VET and higher education have developed in different ways in different nations. In our paper, we analyze different approaches of tertiarization and academization of VET to answer to what extent VET and higher education are affected by the described changes. To answer these questions, we use a heuristic that includes an objective, an organization, a program, and a system dimension. We analyze the cases of China and Germany as they differ greatly in the dimensions of the heuristic. The study is based on the analysis of documents in the selected countries. Based on our findings, we point out consequences for the purpose and equality between VET and higher education.

The growing integration of artificial intelligence (AI) dialogue systems within educational and research settings highlights the importance of learning aids. Despite examination of the ethical concerns associated with these technologies, there is a noticeable gap in investigations on how these ethical issues of AI contribute to students' over-reliance on AI dialogue systems, and how such over-reliance affects students' cognitive abilities. Overreliance on AI occurs when users accept AI-generated recommendations without question, leading to errors in task performance in the context of decision-making. This typically arises when individuals struggle to assess the reliability of AI or how much trust to place in its suggestions. This systematic review investigates how students' over-reliance on AI dialogue systems, particularly those embedded with generative models for academic research and learning, affects their critical cognitive capabilities including decision-making, critical thinking, and analytical reasoning. By using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, our systematic review evaluated a body of literature addressing the contributing factors and effects of such over-reliance within educational and research contexts. The comprehensive literature review spanned 14 articles retrieved from four distinguished databases: ProQuest, IEEE Xplore, ScienceDirect, and Web of Science. Our findings indicate that over-reliance stemming from ethical issues of AI impacts cognitive abilities, as individuals increasingly favor fast and optimal solutions over slow ones constrained by practicality. This tendency explains why users prefer efficient cognitive shortcuts, or heuristics, even amidst the ethical issues presented by AI technologies.

Engineering designers often generate multiple concepts to increase novelty and diversity among early solution candidates. Many past studies have focused on creating new concepts "from scratch;" however, designers at every level become fixated on their initial designs and struggle to generate different ideas. In line with prior work on design transformations, we propose a concept generation process of "iterative transformation" to create new ideas by intentionally introducing major changes in form, nature, or function to an existing concept. A study of this concept generation process recruited beginning engineering students likely to benefit from an alternative to "blank slate" generation. Working alone in a single test session, students generated an initial concept for a presented design problem. Then, they were instructed to generate another concept by transforming their initial design into a new concept and repeated this process to create three more concepts. In a second design round, students were asked to consider 7 Design Heuristics strategies to prompt possible transformations for their concepts. Beginning again with their initial concept, each student generated another set of four transformed concepts using iterative transformation. The analysis considered 60 initial concepts and 476 transformed concepts with and without the use of Design Heuristics. We created "Design Transformation Diagrams" to observe links (sequential, non-sequential, or both) between transformed concepts within each set of four concepts and between the two sets. Three patterns across the diagrams were identified: Fully Sequential, Sequential with Deviation, and Divergent. When aided by Design Heuristics, transformations included more non-sequential links, suggesting synthesis, refinement, and extension of other prior concepts, and resulting in more varied and distinct transformations. This iterative transformation process may support more diversity in concepts generated through a deeper exploration of related concepts without requiring an escape from the influence of existing concepts. Concept generation strategies like Design Heuristics may support engineering students as they learn to expand their early exploration of design concepts.

Center for teaching and learning (CTL) websites help communicate information, services, and opportunities to institutional stakeholders while also serving as an institutional brand to external audiences. Thus, CTL websites must strike a balance of being publicly accessible and user-friendly while also providing various support, resources, and pathways tailored to faculty needs and development. Still, faculty attendance at and participation in CTL-supported faculty development programs and initiatives are persistent and pervasive challenges in higher education. Faculty have many competing priorities and may lack the necessary incentives or time needed to engage with such development opportunities, especially in in-person settings. CTLs are increasingly turning to online faculty development to provide faculty with access to professional development offerings anytime, anywhere. However, few, if any, studies focus on the CTL website as a form of online faculty development in and of itself. The purpose of this single-instrument case study was to shed light on CTL websites as a medium for online faculty development. Data were collected using Google Analytics and through heuristic evaluation and moderated remote usability tests with purposive samples of faculty from varying disciplines and higher education institutions. The case explored provided insights into website design, user experiences, and the information architecture of one CTL website. Findings and lessons learned are discussed, and a framework for online faculty development via CTL websites is theorized. Newly formed or existing CTLs may find value in the results.

In this experimental piece of writing I want to think about the pedagogy of contact and the plight of the hikikomori or social recluse in Japan. I am interested in exploring how the hikikomori practices a kind of contactlessness or what I will call a deadly ipseity of desire. What does it mean to resist contact, to be without contact, to be without desire? What does it mean to risk contact, to risk being tactile with the other, to risk affirming one's desires? I want to generate a discussion about what has happened to desire, to its promise and possibility and why it is so difficult to anticipate or forecast what is to come. For me the BwO of hikikomori is the ruin of desire, the collapse of desire, a disaster of desire. I am pursuing a line of thought which highlights the loss of the possibility of processual schizophrenic breakthrough and in its place the becoming-autistic of the self, the perilous breakdown of the self.

In recent years, there has been a renewed focus on temporality in education policy and governance. This article aims to contribute to this growing body of literature by examining a recent digital education policy initiative in Flanders (Belgium) called 'Digisprong'. Arguing that time, in relation to space, in education policy is relationally produced rather than existing 'out there', the article advances a relational interpretation of the concept of 'temporal governance'. Encompassing the different ways time governs education, this offers a heuristic to empirically study temporalities in education policy. The analysis illustrates how Digisprong shapes three temporal modes of governance: futurization by flattening the past, acceleration through recalibration, and creating conditions for timeliness. Conclusively, we contend that when examining educational time(s), it becomes evident that different temporalities of education governance are not isolated. Instead, they are intricately enacted simultaneously and differentially, highlighting the need for empirical research on time in education.

In this research, our objective is to characterize the problem-solving procedures of primary and lower secondary students when they solve problems in real class conditions. To do so, we rely first on the concept of heuristics. As this term is very polysemic, we exploit the definition proposed by Rott (2014) to develop a coding manual and thus analyze students' procedures. Then, we interpret the results of these analyses in a qualitative way by mobilizing the concept of semantic space (Poitrenaud, 1998). This detailed analysis of students' procedures is made possible by collecting audiovisual data as close as possible to the students' work using an action camera mounted on the students' heads. We thus succeed in highlighting three different investigation profiles that we have named explorer, butterfly, and prospector. Our first results tend to show a correlation with these profiles and the success in problem-solving, yet this would need more investigation.