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Herpetogramma licarsisalis (Walker, 1859) (Fig. 18A, B) Material examined. 19 ÔÔ 30 ♀♀: Bushehr Prov.: 1 Ô, Jam, 620 m, 19.xi.1997, Barâri, Mofidi-Neyestânak, V. Nazari leg., 1 ♀, Kangân, 25 km S Sirâf, Shirino, 20 m, 22.iv.1997, Pâzuki, Hâshemi leg., 4 ÔÔ 1 ♀, Borâzjân, Darvâh, 50 m, 22.–23.xii.1999, Badii, Mofidi-Neyestânak leg., 1 ♀, Khârk Isl., 100 m, 29.–30.ii.2001, Ghayurfar leg.; Fârs Prov.: 1 ♀, Dârâb, Rostâgh, 1250 m, 21.–23.iv.1992, Mirzâyâns, Badii leg., 1 ♀, Dasht-e Arzhan, 1900 m, 14.ix.1974, Abâi leg., 1 ♀, Jahrom, 13.ix.1971, Borumand leg., 1 Ô, Kâzerun, Farâshband, Châh Torkaman, 1200 m, 10.iv.1975, Borumand leg., 1 Ô, Kâzerun, Gâwkoshak, 28.vi.1975, Abâi leg., 1 Ô, Kâzerun, Tang-e Chogân, 900 m, 9.v.1974, Abâi, Pâzuki leg., 1 ♀, Lâr, Park-e Shohadâ, 830 m, 26.x.1997, Moghaddam, N. Nazari, Barâri leg., 1 Ô 1 ♀, 58 km Lâr- Jahrom Rd., 13.iv.1971, Borumand leg., 1 ♀, Mamasani, 8.ix.1971, Borumand leg.; Hormozgân Prov.: 1 ♀, Bandar Abbâs, 28.iv.1986, Mirzâyâns, Borumand leg., 1 Ô, Bandar Abbâs, Dasht-e Emâm, 225 m, 5.ii.2001, Ebrâhimi, Mofidi-Neyestânak leg., 1 ♀, Bandar Abbâs, Gohreh, 9.iii.1971, Âyatollâhi, Pâzuki leg., 1 ♀, Bandar Abbâs, Isin, 240 m, 5.iv.1973, Abâi leg., 1 Ô, Bandar Abbâs, Isin, 50 m, 26.xi.1999, Badii, Barâri, Mofidi-Neyestânak leg., 1 ♀, Bandar Abbâs, Jalâbi vill., 2.iii.1973, Ebert leg., 1 ♀, Bandar Lengeh, Bostâno, 0 m, 25.xi.1997, V. Nazari leg., 2 ÔÔ, Hâjiâbâd, 1140 m, 25.iv.1996, Ardeh, Badii, V. Nazari leg., 1 Ô, Hormoz Isl., 1.iii.1999, Ghayurfar, Manzari leg., 1 ♀, Kish Isl., 21, 24.xi.1999, Mofidi-Neyestânak, Barâri leg., 1 ♀, Minâb, 20.–21.ii.1997, 50 m, V. Nazari leg., 2 ♀♀, Minâb, 22.xi.1997, 50 m, V. Nazari, Badii, Mofidi-Neyestânak leg., 1 Ô 2 ♀♀, Minâb, Gurband, 50 m, 28.–31.xii.1999, Badii, Mofidi-Neyestânak leg., 1 ♀, Minâb, Râvang, 80 m, 24.v.2001, Osten, Ebrâhimi, Mofidi-Neyestânak leg., 1 ♀, Minâb, Râvang, N 24°4 ΄03.6″, E 57°10 ΄22.9″, 34 m, 4.v.2016, Afsariân, Mozhdehi leg., 1 ♀, Sirik, 100 m, 30.iv.1996, Badii, Ardeh, V. Nazari leg.; Kermân Prov.: 1 ♀, Jiroft, Khârposht, 550 m, 1.–2.x.1993, Hâshemi, Ebrâhimi leg.; Khuzestân Prov.: 1 ♀, Âbâdân, Minu Isl., 12 m, 11.v.1975, Pâzuki, Borumand leg., 1 Ô, Ahwâz, Hamidiyeh dam, 20 m, 20.–21.xi.1995, Mirzâyâns, Badii leg., 1 Ô, Behbahân, 350 m, 3.vi.1995, Parchami-Arâghi, Ardeh, Badii leg., 1 ♀, Minu Isl., 14.iv.2002, Ghayurfar leg., 1 ♀, Râmhormoz, Abuzar, 150 m, 18.–19.xi.1995, Mirzâyâns, Badii leg., 1 ♀, Shush, Khovis, Karkheh, 100 m, 24.iv.1995, Badii, Ardeh, Parchami-Arâghi leg.; Sistân and Baluchestân Prov.: 1 ♀, Bâhukalât, 57 m, 3.xi.2001, Ghayurfar, Nematiân leg., 1 ♀, Châbahâr, 30 m, 30.xii.2002, Hâjiesmailiân, Mofidi-Neyestânak leg., 1 Ô, Nikshahr, Tang-e Sarheh, 1100 m, 16.iii.1972, Abâi, Ebert leg., 1 Ô, Pishin, 150 m, 11.–12.xi.1996, Badii, Parchami-Arâghi, Ardeh leg. Distribution. Native in tropic and subtropics. In Europe it has been recorded in Portugal, Spain, Canary Islands, Madeira, Azores, Malta, Sardinia, Sicily, Lampedusa Isle, Crete, Cyprus, S England (only as rare immigrants) and Sweden (Slamka 2013). In Iran, it has been reported from Bushehr (Bushehr), Fars (Mian Kotal), Hormozgan (Sarzeh), and Khuzestan (Ahwaz) Provinces (Amsel 1949, 1961). Remarks. In the examined specimens ground colour of the wings varies from pale grayish-brown to dark grayish-brown (Fig. 18A, B)., Published as part of Alipanah, Helen & Slamka, František, 2023, A revision of the subfamily Spilomelinae (Lepidoptera, Crambidae) in Iran with description of a new species, pp. 1-70 in Zootaxa 5248 (1) on pages 37-38, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5248.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/7681705, {"references":["Slamka, F. (2013) Pyraloidea of Europe (Lepidoptera). Vol. 3. Pyraustinae & Spilomelinae. F. Slamka, Bratislava, 357 pp.","Amsel, H. G. (1949) On the Microlepidoptera collected by E. P. Wiltshre in Irak and Iran in the years 1935 to 1938. Bulletin de la Societe Fouad 1 er d'Entomologie, 33, 271 - 351.","Amsel, H. G. (1961) Die Microlepidopteren der Brandt'schen Iran-Ausbeute. 5. Teil. Arkiv for Zoologi, New Series, 13 (17), 323 - 445, pls. 1 - 9."]}

Herpetogramma fascinalis (Amsel, 1950) Material examined. No material was available for examination in this study. Distribution. Iran: Sistan and Baluchestan Province (Chabahar; type locality) (Amsel 1950). Remarks. According to Amsel (1950), this species can be easily separated from H. licarsisalis externally by having three equal-sized black spots on costal margin of the forewing: one near the base, the second at the beginning of the second transverse line, and the third more distant at the beginning of the fourth transverse line. The last one is reniform spot which is located at distal part of the discoidal cell. Herpetogramma licarsisalis has two black spots on the forewing, the larger reniform and the smaller antemedial spots both located inside the discoidal cell., Published as part of Alipanah, Helen & Slamka, František, 2023, A revision of the subfamily Spilomelinae (Lepidoptera, Crambidae) in Iran with description of a new species, pp. 1-70 in Zootaxa 5248 (1) on page 37, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5248.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/7681705

Recent climate change has produced a wide range of shifts in the phenology of species and consequent changes in the relationships among them. However, a dearth of studies exists that evaluates an entire trophic pyramid over an extended period. Here I characterize changes in several important variables on such a multitrophic suite of species, which contains two primary producers (sensitive and marsh ferns Onoclea sensibilis and Thelypteris palustris), one herbivore (caterpillars of the fern moth Herpetogramma theseusalis), one primary parasitoid (the braconid wasp Alabagrus texanus), and three facultative hyperparasitoids (including the eulophid wasp Aprostocetus sp.). I ask how the abundance of these species changes over time, how parasitism and mortality change along with the plants an herbivore selects, how the relationships between the different trophic levels change, and what effect these results play in the makeup of a trophic pyramid. Herbivores prospered most on sensitive fern, while levels of parasitism and mortality on herbivores and primary parasitoids remained relatively similar over the study period. However, facultative hyperparasitoids declined strikingly, and the few remaining individuals increased their exploitation of caterpillars (vs. Alabagrus), further decreasing the impact of the fourth trophic level. Since a previous study demonstrated that phenological change by these primary parasitoids exceeds that of their herbivore, further breakdown of the system appears likely.

Genus Herpetogramma Lederer, 1863 Type species: Herpetogramma servalis Lederer, 1863 = Acharana Moore, 1885 (type species: Botys otreusalis Walker, 1859) = Coremataria Amsel, 1956 (type species: Botys infuscalis Guenée, 1854) = Culcitaria Amsel, 1957 (type species: Botys infuscalis Guenée, 1854) = Macrobotys Munroe, 1950 (type species: Botys aeglealis Walker, 1859) = Pachyzancla Meyrick, 1884 (type species: Botys mutualis Zeller, 1852) = Pantoeocome Warren, 1896 (type species: Pantoeocome deformis Warren, 1896) = Piloptila Swinhoe, 1894 (type species: Piloptila nigricornalis Swinhoe, 1894) = Stenomeles Warren, 1892 (type species: Botys agavealis Walker, 1859), Published as part of Shin, Bora, Choi, Sei-Woong & Kim, Sung-Soo, 2022, Fourteen new records of Crambidae (Lepidoptera) from South Korea, pp. 513-534 in Zootaxa 5159 (4) on page 526, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5159.4.3, http://zenodo.org/record/6786069, {"references":["Lederer, J. (1863) Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Pyralidinen. Wiener Entomologische Monatschrift, 7 (8 + 10 - 12), 243 - 280 + 331 - 504, pls. 2 - 18. https: // biostor. org / reference / 235646","Walker, F. (1859) Pyralites. List of the Specimens of Lepidopterous Insects in the Collection of the British Museum, London, 17, 255 - 508. https: // doi. org / 10.5962 / bhl. title. 58221","Guenee, M. A. (1854) Deltoides et Pyralites. In: Boisduval, J. B. A. D. de & Guenee, M. A., Histoire Naturelle des Insectes. Species General des Lepidopteres. 8 (8). Roret, Paris, pp. 1 - 448. https: // doi. org / 10.5962 / bhl. title. 9194","Meyrick, E. (1884) On the classification of the Australian Pyralidina. Transactions of the Entomological Society of London, 1884, 61 - 80 + 277 - 350. https: // doi. org / 10.1111 / j. 1365 - 2311.1884. tb 01610. x"]}

Herpetogramma okamotoi Yamanaka, 1976 (Figs. 1K, 4C, 4D) Herpetogramma okamotoi Yamanaka, 1976: 2–5, figs 3, 6, 9. TL: Japan, Hyogo Pref., Takasago. Material examined. 3 males, Andeok, JJ: Jeju, 2020.07.24. (Kim SS). Diagnosis. Herpetogramma okamotoi can be diagnosed by the blackish forewing with the weakly dentate and medially strongly curved postmedial line, and the large black discal dot, and the blackish hindwing with the black discal dot and medially projected postmedial line. H. okamotoi is externally similar to other species of Herpetogramma in wing color and wing pattern elements but can be distinguished by the shape of the costal part of the postmedial line of the forewing. The male genitalia of Herpetogramma okamotoi are similar to those of other Herpetogramma but can be distinguished by the broad and trapezoidal shape of the saccus and the long sclerotization without spine-like cornutus on the aedeagus. Description. Wingspan 23–24mm. Antennae filiform; frons broad, top ochreous, middle brownish, bottom grayish; maxillary palpi minute, tip blackish; labial palpi moderate in length, about 2.5 times to eye diameter, 1 st segment whitish, 2 nd segment laterally dark brownish. Body white. Forewing light blackish in ground color; antemedial line blackish, slanted; postmedial line blackish, costally weakly dentate, medially strongly curved inward; central fascia costally broad, tapered from middle to dorsum, a minute black dot close to the antemedial line, discal dot black, long, slanted, almost meets to the middle part of the postmedial line; subtermen dark brownish; termen lined with yellowish white. Hindwing blackish; anteriorly with a black dot; postmedial line blackish, medially strongly projected outward; termen blackish. Male genitalia. Uncus long, slender, basally thick, tapered distally and hairy distally, apex obtuse; vinculum dorsally almost flat, medially weakly convex that continuously extended to the basad of costa of valva; juxta broad; saccus trapezoidal with a pair of sacs of coremata. Valva rugby-ball shaped; costa concave, sclerotized. Aedeagus long, slender, apically expanded, with thin plate-like sclerotization; diverticulum with long sclerotization, but no spine-like cornutus. Female genitalia (based on Okamoto, 1970). Papillae anales flat, thin, plate-like; posterior apophyses thick, almost 1.5 times of 8 th segment; anterior apophyses thick, gradually tapered distally; ostium bursae simple, funnel-shaped; ductus bursae long medially with a sclerotized colliculum, anteriorly expanded; corpus bursae large elliptical, signum a small sclerotized plate-like process. Distribution. South Korea and Japan DNA barcoding. One specimen from South Korea (OK501196) was sequenced, and the genetic difference between H. okamotoi and its relative, H. sphingealis Handfield and Handfield was 6.2%. Remarks. The genus Herpetogramma comprises 100 species worldwide, highly species rich in the Neotropical and Oriental regions (Nuss et al., 2003 –2021). The tribe was the monophyletic supported by the following synapomorphies; the relatively long sensillar setae of basal antennomeres in males, the porrect 3 rd labial palpomere, the conical, non-capitate uncus, and the corpus bursae with a granulose area (Mally et al., 2019). The species of this genus feed various food plants from ferns to angiosperms (Solis, 2008), and H. okamotoi feeds on a fern species, Pteris multifida Poiret (Aspleniaceae) in Japan (Okamoto, 1970)., Published as part of Shin, Bora, Choi, Sei-Woong & Kim, Sung-Soo, 2022, Fourteen new records of Crambidae (Lepidoptera) from South Korea, pp. 513-534 in Zootaxa 5159 (4) on page 526, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5159.4.3, http://zenodo.org/record/6786069, {"references":["Yamanaka, H. (1976) Two new species of Herpetogramma from Japan, with a note on the known species (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae). Tinea, Tokyo, 10 (1), 1 - 6.","Nuss, M., Landry, B., Mally, R., Vegliante, F., Trankner, A., Bauer, F., Hayden, J., Segerer, A., Schouten, R., Li, H., Trofimova, T., Solis, M. A., De Prins J. & Speidel, W. (2003 - 2022) Global Information System on Pyraloidea. Available from: http: // www. pyraloidea. org (accessed 17 February 2022)","Mally, R., Hayden, J. E., Neinhuis, C., Jordal, B. H. & Nuss, M. (2019) The phylogenetic systematics of Spilomelinae and Pyraustinae (Lepidoptera: Pyraloidea: Crambidae) inferred from DNA and morphology. Arthropod Systematics & Phylogeny, Dresden, 77 (1), 141 - 204. https: // doi. org / 10.26049 / asp 77 - 1 - 2019 - 07","Solis, M. A. (2008) Pyraloidea and their known hosts (Insecta: Lepidoptera) of Plummers Island, Maryland. Bulletin of the Biological Society of Washington, 15, 88 - 106. https: // doi. org / 10.2988 / 0097 - 0298 (2008) 15 [88: PATKHI] 2.0. CO; 2"]}

In this article, we report six Crambidae moth species, Herpetogramma pseudomagnum Yamanaka, Tatobotys biannulalis Walker, Metoeca foedalis (Guenée, 1854), Elophila nigrolinealis Pryer, Crocidolomia pavonana Fabricius, and Evergestis pallidata Hufnagel, for the first time from Korea. The diagnosis, distribution, pictures of adults, and genitalia of both sexes for six crambid moth species are provided. Keywords: Crambidae, Korea, Lepidoptera, Unrecorded species

Five species of the genus Herpetogramma in China are studied with morphological and DNA barcode data. Herpetogrammabiconvexa Wan, Lu & Du, sp. nov., H.longispina Wan, Lu & Du, sp. nov., and H.brachyacantha Wan, Lu & Du, sp. nov. are described as new. Herpetogrammarudis (Warren) and H.magna (Butler) are newly diagnosed. Photographs of the habitus and genitalia of these five species are provided.

1. Choice of host size may play a critical role in parasitoid success, a task that takes on added complications when dealing with concealed hosts, but most such studies of insect behaviour have only taken place in the laboratory. 2. This study investigates the success of a wasp (Alabagrus texanus: Braconidae) in finding host caterpillars Herpetogramma theseusalis (Crambidae) of the most effectively handled size hidden in shelters, in both the field and the laboratory. 3. First, the study tested wasp preference and success in parasitizing large, middle‐sized and small caterpillars (> 5, 3–5, 5 mm) caterpillars. Naive wasps attacked large caterpillars more often than did experienced wasps. Wasps responded to increasing caterpillar size by increasing the number of legs used to pin their prey rather than by increasing handling time. 4. The frequencies of visits to shelters in the field containing a majority of either large or middle‐sized caterpillars were then compared, followed by a test providing the wasps with similar choices under controlled laboratory conditions. Wasps most frequently visited shelters containing a majority of middle‐sized caterpillars both in the field and under controlled laboratory conditions. 5. The combined results confirmed that the wasps can size‐select their hosts both in the field and in laboratory tests.

Although caterpillars commonly construct shelters on vegetation that other species subsequently occupy, few studies have focused on the spiders that often recruit to them. Fern moth larvae Herpetogramma theseusalis (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) produce large, roughly circular shelters on ferns that provide them with food and protection. Female jumping spiders Phidippus clarus Keyserling, 1885 (Salticidae) with brood or first-instar young made up over two-thirds of the spiders tallied in a study of abandoned fern moth shelters. The only other species tending young, the sac spider Clubiona bishopi Edwards, 1958 (Clubionidae), made up less than 10% of the total. Only eight species of spiders used these shelters, one-half to one-fourth that of three other studies and differing in the prevalence of jumping spiders, as opposed to a prevalence of sac spiders in the other studies. Although fern moth shelters provide important nest sites for two spiders, these sites did not enhance diversity of the spider community.

Young unable to move freely depend on their parents to place them in sites with superior resources or protection from unfavorable factors. The preference‐performance hypothesis holds that females should oviposit on sites that maximize the performance of their offspring. Shelters may provide their inhabitants with superior food resources, protection from enemies, and ameliorated physical factors. Accordingly, one might predict that females would prefer shelters to alternatives, since they might provide enemy‐free space. However, Herpetogramma theseusalis (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) fern moths oviposited both in shelters constructed on sensitive ferns (Onoclea sensibilis L., Dryopteridaceae) and on exposed fern pinnae, perhaps as a bet‐hedging tactic. The moths laid eggs on the outer parts of the shelters, but after hatching the young caterpillars moved toward the center of the shelters, often beyond the reach of their common larval parasitoid, Alabagrus texanus (Cresson) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). Although caterpillars in both areas grew at the same rate, those in shelters were parasitized less frequently than those on exposed pinnae. However, shelters senesced from the center to the periphery, depriving the caterpillars of progressively more of their food source and eventually forcing them into the open, potentially increasing their vulnerability. But numbers of wasps decreased simultaneously; hence, most caterpillars were not exposed until danger from the parasitoids had greatly diminished. Thus, offspring of females ovipositing in shelters experienced superior success, consistent with the preference‐performance hypothesis, but through lowered mortality via use of enemy‐free space, rather than superior feeding conditions.

The Spilomelinae Guinee, 1854 (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) is known as the largest subfamily of the Pyraloidea with a wide distribution in the tropical and temperate zones. In the present study, new taxonomic and faunistic results on this subfamily are presented on the basis of material sampled in the south-western province Dhofar of Oman. In Dhofar three zoogeographical zones intersect, namely the Palearctic, Oriental and Afrotropical zones, with the Afrotropical fauna elements in the majority. The specimens of the sample are attributed to three species of three different genera, namely Herpetogramma, Lederer, 1883 (n=2), Notarcha, Meyrick, 1884 (n=2) and Glyphodes, Meyrick, 1884 (n=2) on the basis of external and genital-morphological characters. The specimens attributed to the genus Herpetogramma, Lederer, 1883 are assigned to a species group known as LBJ (Little Brown Jobs), the species of which are distinguishable by genital-morphological features exclusively. The specimens attributed to the genus Notarcha, Meyrick, 1884 revealed to be very close in wing pattern features to the Notarcha quaternalis Zeller, 1832 species complex. Comparison of the male genitalia of each of the sub-samples with the species of the respective sub-groups revealed significant differences, which result in the descriptions of the new species Herpetogramma debilis Seizmair, sp. nov. and Notarcha viridalis Seizmair, sp. nov. The presence of the genus Notarcha, Meyrick, 1884 is reported as new to the entomofauna of the Arabian Peninsula. The specimens attributed to the genus Glyphodes, Meyrick, 1884 differ significantly in external characters from a sample of seven species with similar forewing longitudinal line patterns. Among the species of this cluster Glyphodes onychinalis Guenee, 1854 is genital-morphologically very close to the specimens of the sample collected. The latter species and the specimens of the sample share the shape of the uncus and the structure of the corpus bursae wall, yet differ significantly in the structure of the valva. These differences result in the description of the new species Glyphodes leucomesalis Seizmair, sp.nov.

36. Herpetogramma basalis (Walker, 1866) Synonymy follows Nuss et al. (2003 –2018): = Botys apertalis Walker, 1866; = Botys inanitalis Lederer, 1863; = Pyrausta dorsipunctalis Rebel, 1892; = Pyrausta dorcalis Alphéraki, 1889. Material: 69 ex. Mali, Bamako, Ouronina 12°5'39.78"N 8°24'3.16"W, 03.09.– 17.11.2014, leg. Kravchenko et al. (SMNH). Distribution: Palaeotropical. In Africa: Kenya, Réunion, Seychelles, South Africa (De Prins & De Prins 2018) and Mali (new record). Also in Oriental: Sri Lanka (De Prins & De Prins 2018). Host-plants: Amaranthaceae: Amaranthus sp., Beta vulgaris L.; Verbenaceae: Lantana camara L.; Cucurbitaceae and Brassicaceae (Wikipedia 2018)., Published as part of Poltavsky, Alexander N., Kravchenko, Vasiliy D., Traore, Mohammed M., Traore, Sekou F., Gergely, Petrányi, Witt, Thomas J., Sulak, Harry, Beck, T., Junnila, Amy, Revay, Edita E., Doumbia, Seydou, Beier, John C. & Muller, Gunter C., 2018, The Pyraloidea (Lepidoptera) fauna of the woody savannah belt in Mali, West Africa, pp. 39-69 in Zootaxa 4457 (1) on page 51, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4457.1.2, http://zenodo.org/record/1457559, {"references":["Walker, F. (1866) List of the Specimens of Lepidopterous Insects in the Collection of the British Museum, 34. Supplement Part 4. The Trustees of the British Museum, London, 413 pp. [pp. 1121 - 1533]","Nuss, M., Landry, B., Mally, R., Vegliante, F., Trankner, A., Bauer, F., Hayden, J., Segerer, A., Sсhouten, R., Li, H., Trofimova, T., Solis, M. A., De Prins, J. & Speidel, W. (2003 - 2018) Global Information System on Pyraloidea. Available from: http: // www. pyraloidea. org (aссessed 28 May 2018)","Lederer, J. (1863) Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Pyralidinen. Wiener Entomologische Monatschrift, 7 (8, 10 - 12), 243 - 280 + 331 - 504.","Rebel, H. (1892) Beitrag zur Mikrolepidopterenfauna des сanarisсhen Arсhipels. Annalen des naturhistorischen Hofmuseums, 7, 241 - 284.","Alpheraki, S. (1889) Sur quelques Lepidopteres de la Russie meridionale. In: Romanoff, N. M. (Ed.), Memoires sur les Lepidopteres. Fol. 5. St. Petersbourgh. pp. 233 - 239.","De Prins, J. & De Prins, W. (2018) Afromoths, online database of Afrotropiсal moth speсies (Lepidoptera). Available from: http: // www. afromoths. net / (aссessed 10 May 2018)","Wikipedia (2018) The Free Enсyсlopedia. Available from: http: // en. wikipedia. org / (aссessed 10 May 2018)"]}

35. Herpetogramma licarsisalis (Walker, 1859) Synonymy follows Nuss et al. (2003 –2018): = Botys abstrusalis Walker, 1859b; = Botys immundalis Walker, 1866; = Botys pharaxalis Walker, 1859b; = Botys serotinalis Joannis in Joannis & Ragonot, 1889; = Entephria fumidalis Walker, 1866. Material: 6 ex. Mali, Bamako, Ouronina 12°5'39.78"N 8°24'3.16"W, 04.08.– 23.09.2014, leg. Kravchenko et al. (SMNH). Distribution: Palaeotropical, penetrates to Palaearctic. In Africa: British Indian Ocean Territory, Cameroon, Cape Verde, DR Congo, Egypt, Ethiopia, Madagascar, Réunion, Saint Helena, Saudi Arabia, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Sudan, United Arab Emirates, Yemen, Zimbabwe (De Prins & De Prins 2018) and Mali (new record). Also in Australasia: Hawaii, New Zealand, Solomon Islands; Oriental: Andaman Islands, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia (Borneo), Malaysia (Sarawak), New Guinea, Philippines, Sri Lanka; Palaearctic: China, Cyprus, Japan, Lebanon, North Africa, South Europe, Syria (De Prins & De Prins 2018). Host-plants: Poaceae: Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers., Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn., Hyparrhenia sp., Lolium perenne L., Paspalum dilatatum Poir., Pennisetum clandestinum Hochst. ex Chiov., Oryza sativa L., Stenotaphrum dimidiatum (L.) Brongn., Zea mays L .. (De Prins & De Prins 2018;). Known as tropical grass webworm—its larvae feed on various grasses of the Poaceae family and it is a pest of turf and pastures (Wikipedia 2018)., Published as part of Poltavsky, Alexander N., Kravchenko, Vasiliy D., Traore, Mohammed M., Traore, Sekou F., Gergely, Petrányi, Witt, Thomas J., Sulak, Harry, Beck, T., Junnila, Amy, Revay, Edita E., Doumbia, Seydou, Beier, John C. & Muller, Gunter C., 2018, The Pyraloidea (Lepidoptera) fauna of the woody savannah belt in Mali, West Africa, pp. 39-69 in Zootaxa 4457 (1) on page 51, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4457.1.2, http://zenodo.org/record/1457559, {"references":["Nuss, M., Landry, B., Mally, R., Vegliante, F., Trankner, A., Bauer, F., Hayden, J., Segerer, A., Sсhouten, R., Li, H., Trofimova, T., Solis, M. A., De Prins, J. & Speidel, W. (2003 - 2018) Global Information System on Pyraloidea. Available from: http: // www. pyraloidea. org (aссessed 28 May 2018)","Walker, F. (1859 b) Pyralides. In: List of the Specimens of Lepidopterous Insects in the Collection of the British Museum. Fol. 18. The Trustees of the British Museum, London, pp. 509 - 798.","Walker, F. (1866) List of the Specimens of Lepidopterous Insects in the Collection of the British Museum, 34. Supplement Part 4. The Trustees of the British Museum, London, 413 pp. [pp. 1121 - 1533]","Joannis, J. & Ragonot, E. - L. (1889) Desсriptions de genres nouveaux et espeсes nouvelles de Lepidopteres. Annales de la Societe Entomologique de France, 6 (8), 271 - 284.","De Prins, J. & De Prins, W. (2018) Afromoths, online database of Afrotropiсal moth speсies (Lepidoptera). Available from: http: // www. afromoths. net / (aссessed 10 May 2018)","Wikipedia (2018) The Free Enсyсlopedia. Available from: http: // en. wikipedia. org / (aссessed 10 May 2018)"]}

The sex pheromone of Herpetogramma submarginale (Swinhoe) was studied by gas chromatography (GC) with electroantennographic detection and GC coupled with mass spectrometry. Two pheromone candidates detected in the gland extracts of females were identified as (Z)-13-hexadecenyl acetate (Z13-16:OAc) and (E)-13-hexadecenyl acetate (E13-16:OAc) in a ratio of 87:13 by mass spectral analysis of the natural pheromone components and their dimethyldisulfide adducts. In field tests, Z13-16:OAc alone attracted H. submarginale males and caught significantly more males than live virgin females. Addition of E13-16:OAc did not enhance the attractiveness of Z13-16:OAc. Derivatives of Z13-16:OAc also were tested as potential pheromone components. Addition of (Z)-13-hexadecen-1-ol significantly reduced the number of males captured, and (Z)-13-hexadecenal had no effect on the attractiveness of the lure. These results suggest that the female-produced sex pheromone of H. submarginale is Z13-16:OAc. This hexadecenyl acetate is a novel moth sex pheromone component.

Most attention to size-time trade-offs of insects has focused on herbivore risk, with considerably less attention paid to parasitoids. Here, we focus on parasitoid risk, comparing the fates of unparasitised herbivore hosts and parasitised hosts that protect the parasitoids. Success of a koinobiont parasitoid (host grows after parasitisation) depends on maintaining a delicate balance with its host, thereby ensuring its own survival while the host grows. To evaluate growth rate–mortality rate relationships of host and parasitoid, we compared several aspects of the growth, phenology, and behaviour of unparasitised fern moth [Herpetogramma theseusalis (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae)] larvae and larvae parasitised by Alabagrus texanus (Cresson) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), a solitary koinobiont (one parasitoid per host) wasp. Host larvae feed and construct shelters on sensitive fern, Onoclea sensibilis L. (Dryopteridaceae). Alabagrus texanus parasitise early-instar moths in late summer, which overwinter in their host, emerging in mid-summer to pupate and eclose. During the autumn following hatching and the immediately following spring, parasitised and unparasitised moth larvae did not differ in size, took similar time to choose between satisfactory and unsatisfactory foods, and built similar shelters. Prior to any other changes noted, more parasitised than unparasitised larvae also died when severely starved. Parasitised larvae subsequently grew less and pupated later than unparasitised ones (small size, slow growth), but consumed similar amounts of food. Although the numerically dominant parasitoid of fern moths, we concluded that A. texanus do not efficiently exploit their hosts.

Larvae of Herpetogramma species (commonly called webworms, sod webworms, or grass webworms) are widely distributed throughout North America, Eurasia, Australia, New Zealand, Central and South America. Tropical sod webworm, Herpetogramma phaeopteralis (Guenee), larvae are among the most destructive pests of warm-season turfgrasses in the southeastern United States, Caribbean, and central America, especially on sod farms and newly established sod, lawns, athletic fields, and golf courses. Larval feeding affects the esthetics, vigour, photosynthesis, and density of turfgrass. Symptoms of infestation appear as notched and ragged grass blades with damaged areas in lawn appearing as small brown patches of closely mowed grass. Heavy infestations allow the ingress of weeds. Current control recommendations against tropical sod webworm include several cultural methods (including dethatching and cultivar selection) and the foliar application of chemical insecticides against larval stages. We summarize the seasonal biology, taxonomy, and IPM options of this important pest.

This study was carried out to report the newly recorded species of the family Crambidae, belonging to the order Lepidoptera. During the course of investigation on the family Crambidae in South Korea, the following four species are reported for the first time from Korea: Diplopseustis perieresalis (Walker, 1859), Dolicharthria bruguieralis (Duponchel, 1833), Herpetogramma ochrimaculale (South, 1901), and Omiodes diemenalis ($Guen{\acute{e}}e$ 수식 이미지, 1854). Among them two genera, Diplopseustis Meyrick and Dolicharthria Stephens, are also newly reported from Korea. External and genital characteristics of adults were examined and illustrated. All of the newly recorded species were enumerated with their available information including the collecting localities, illustrations of adults, and genitalia.

Many caterpillars construct shelters by folding leaves and feeding from within. Many shelter-constructing species suffer high rates of parasitism as larvae or pupae. In spite of the likely significance, the effects of these shelters on the survival of pupae and the trade-off between feeding and constructing shelters have attracted little experimental attention. In both field and laboratory experiments, fern-feeding caterpillars [Herpetogramma theseusalis (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae)] invested heavily in shelters, losing weight and significantly delaying pupation rather than feeding or pupating in exposed locations. Experimentally thinning the walls of shelters in the field doubled the parasitism rate. Parasitism of pupae exceeded predation by an order of magnitude or more in both seasons of this study. Caterpillars constructed similarly sized shelters regardless of availability of fern fronds, resulting in incomplete shelters on especially small fronds, putting pupae at increased risk of parasitism. We suggest that similar interactions are common and merit more attention.

Herpetogramma bipunctalis (Fabricius, 1794) Figs 19, 104, 150 Phalaena bipunctalis Fabricius, 1794: 232. Herpetogramma bipunctalis (Fabricius): Peck et al., 1998: 227. ��� Causton et al., 2006: 141. ��� Roque-Albelo & Landry, 2015. Material examined: ♀ lectotype of synonym Botys philealis Walker, 1859, 3 ♂, 2 ♀ from the Gal��pagos Islands: ��� Genovesa: Bah��a Darwin. ��� Isabela: �� 15 km N P[uer]to Villamil. ��� Santa Cruz: Charles Darwin Research Station; Charles Darwin Research Station, Barranco, 20 m elev[ation]. ��� Santiago: Jaboncillo [camp], �� 850 m elev. Deposited in MHNG. Diagnosis: Measuring 23 to 25 mm in wingspan, this pale tan species can be recognized by its slightly darker forewing costa and apex, as well as by the two small contrasting eponymous dots in the cell, with the apical slightly bigger (Fig. 19). Herpetogramma phaeopteralis (Figs 20, 21) is much darker and its darker markings are poorly apparent. Paler specimens of Asciodes quietalis (Fig. 6) are more evenly coloured on the forewing, without darker costa and apex, their transverse lines are zigzagged, and their apical cell dot is quadrangular with the centre concolourous with the forewing background. Biology: The larva has been recorded to feed on a wide variety of host plants in the Acanthaceae, Amaranthaceae, Araceae, Asteraceae, Brassicaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Hydrangeaceae, Malvaceae, Poaceae, Rubiaceae, Schisandraceae, Solanaceae, Tiliaceae, Urticaceae, Zingiberaceae (Robinson et al., 2014). In the Gal��pagos the five specimens available have been collected from March until May in anthropized as well as pristine habitats from the littoral zone to about 850 m in elevation. Distribution: Described from ���Americae Insulis��� (American Islands) this species is widespread across the World, including Australia in warmer regions, and the Western Hemisphere from Canada and eastern USA, across the West Indies and south to Argentina (Shaffer et al., 1996; Patterson et al., 2015; Robinson et al., 2014). It is known in the Gal��pagos from the islands of Genovesa, Isabela, Santa Cruz, and Santiago. Remarks: I have identified Gal��pagos specimens based on specimens in the BMNH. Michael Shaffer, former curator of Pyraloidea at the BMNH, pinned a note under one specimen saying that it was conspecific with this species. The type would be in Copenhagen. female lectotype for the synonym Botys philealis Walker, 1859, is designated with the following labels: 1- ���47 | 9��� [recto], ���Vene | zuela��� [verso] [circular, pale blue, hand written]; 2- ���74. BOTYS PHILEALIS.��� [typed, folded]; 3- ���Type��� [circular, green bordered, typed]; 4- ���1953 | 424��� [hand written, upside down]; 5- ���Lecto | type��� [circular, navy blue bordered, typed]; 6- ��� LECTOTYPE | Botys | philealis | Walker | Des. B. Landry, 2000��� [hand written except for Latin name, describer, and last two zeros]���; 7- ���B.M. Pyralidae | Genitalia slide |. 22278 ♀ ��� [typed except for female sign]; 8- LECTOTYPE | designated by |. Solis, 2009��� [typed]. paralectotype male without abdomen is also designated. The species is known as the Southern beet webworm (Heppner, 2003)., Published as part of Bernard Landry, 2016, Taxonomic revision of the Spilomelinae (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae s. l.) of the Gal��pagos Islands, Ecuador, pp. 315-399 in Revue suisse de Zoologie 123 (2) on pages 337-339, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.155309, {"references":["Peck S. B., Heraty J., Landry B., Sinclair B. J. 1998. Introduced insect fauna of an oceanic archipelago: The Galapagos Islands, Ecuador. American Entomologist 44: 218 - 237.","Causton C. E., Peck S. B., Sinclair B. J., Roque-Albelo L., Hodgson C. J., Landry B. 2006. Alien Insects: Threats and implications for conservation of Galapagos Islands. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 99: 121 - 143.","Roque-Albelo L., Landry B. 2015. Lepidoptera. In: Bungartz F., Herrera H., Jaramillo P., Tirado N., Jimenez-Uzcategui G., Ruiz D., Guezou A., Ziemmeck F. (eds.). Charles Darwin Foundation Galapagos Species Checklist - Lista de Especies de Galapagos de la Fundacion Charles Darwin. Charles Darwin Foundation / Fundacion Charles Darwin, Puerto Ayora, Galapagos: http: // www. darwinfoundation. org / datazone / checklists / terrestrial-invertebrates / Last updated 30 November 2015.","Robinson G. S., Ackery P. R., Kitching I. J., Beccaloni G. W., Hernandez L. M. 2014. HOSTS - a Database of the World's Lepidopteran Hostplants. http: // www. nhm. ac. uk / researchcuration / research / projects / hostplants /","Shaffer M., Nielsen E. S., Horak M. 1996. Pyralidae (pp. 164 - 199). In: Nielsen E. S., Edwards E. D., Rangsi T. V. (eds). Checklist of the Lepidoptera of Australia. In: Nielsen E. S. (ed.), Monographs on Australian Lepidoptera 4. CSIRO Division of Entomology, Canberra.","Patterson B. et al. 2015. North American Moth Photographers Group. http: // mothphotographersgroup. msstate. edu.","Heppner J. B. 2003. Lepidoptera of Florida. Part 1. Introduction and catalog. Arthropods of Florida and neighbouring land areas 17: 670 pp."]}

Herpetogramma Lederer, 1863 One-hundred species are included in this genus (Nuss et al., 2016), 38 of which are mentioned from the Neotropical region (Munroe, 1995)., Published as part of Bernard Landry, 2016, Taxonomic revision of the Spilomelinae (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae s. l.) of the Gal��pagos Islands, Ecuador, pp. 315-399 in Revue suisse de Zoologie 123 (2) on page 337, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.155309, {"references":["Nuss M., Landry B., Vegliante F., Trankner A., Mally R., Hayden J. E., Bauer F., Segerer A., Li H., Schouten R., Solis M. A., Trofimova T., De Prins J., Speidel W. 2003 - 2016. Global Information System on Pyraloidea. www. pyraloidea. org. Last accessed: 1 June 2016.","Munroe E. G. 1995. Crambidae (Crambinae, Schoenobiinae, Cybalomiinae, Linostinae, Glaphyriinae, Dichogaminae, Scopariinae, Musotiminae, Midilinae, Nymphulinae, Odontiinae, Evergestinae, Pyraustinae). Pp. 34 - 79. In: Heppner, J. B., Atlas of Neotropical Lepidoptera. Checklist: Part 2. Hyblaeoidea - Pyraloidea - Tortricoidea 3. Association for Tropical Lepidoptera & Scientific Publishers, Gainesville."]}

Herpetogramma phaeopteralis (Guen��e, 1854) Figs 20, 21, 105, 151 Botys phaeopteralis Guen��e, 1854: 349. Herpetogramma phaeopteralis (Guen��e): Peck et al., 1998: 227. ��� Causton et al., 2006: 141. ��� Roque-Albelo & Landry, 2015. Material examined Type specimens: 2 ♀ syntypes without abdomen (BMNH). Other specimens: 17 ♂, 25 ♀, 17 of undetermined sex from the Gal��pagos Islands: ��� Fernandina: SW side, GPS: 815 m elev[ation]., S 00�� 21.270���, W 91��35.341���; SW side, crater rim, GPS: 1341 m elev., S 00�� 21.910���, W 91�� 34.034���. ��� Floreana: Scalesias near Cerro Pajas, GPS: elev. 329 m, S 01�� 17.743���, W 90�� 27.111���. ��� Isabela: Alcedo, lado NE, camp arida alta, 200 m; Alcedo, lado NE, 400 m, camp pega-pega; �� 15 km N P[uer]to Villamil; Sierra Negra, Corazon Verde; NE slope Alcedo, Los Guayabillos camp, GPS: 869 m elev., S 00�� 24.976���, W 91�� 04.617���; Sierra Negra, pampa zone, 1000 m [elevation]; Alcedo, lado NE, 1100 m, cumbre, caseta Cayot. ��� San Crist��bal: near Loberia, sea level, GPS: S 00�� 55.277���, W 89�� 36.909���; near Loberia, sea level, GPS: elev. 14 m, S 00�� 55.149���, W 89�� 36.897���; 1 km S El Progreso; base of Cerro Pelado; La Toma, ca. 6.5 km east El Progreso, GPS: 299 m elev., S 00�� 55.356���, W 89�� 31.089���; vic[inity]. El Junco, ca. 700 m; pampa zone. ��� Santa Cruz: 2 km W Bella Vista; Finca Vilema, 2 km W Bella Vista; Media Luna, pampa zone. ��� Santiago: 200 m elev.; Aguacate [camp], 520 m elev.; Central [camp], 700 m elev.; Jaboncillo [camp], �� 850 m elev. Deposited in BMNH, CDRS, CNC, MCZ, and MHNG. Diagnosis: This 18-22.5 mm wide species (Figs 20, 21) can be difficult to separate from four other brown species in the Gal��pagos by virtue of their darker brown markings. The key below, which excludes the similarly coloured Beebea guglielmi, because of its larger, 58-72 mm wingspan, should be sufficient for that purpose. Biology: The recorded host plants are mostly Poaceae, but also Amaranthaceae and Polygonaceae in the Western Hemisphere (Robinson et al., 2014). Available Gal��pagos specimens were collected in all vegetation zones, up to the top of several islands, in anthropized as well as more natural habitats although at one time colonized by goats or other feral farm animals. Collecting dates are in January until May and November and December. Distribution: Described from ���toute l���Am��rique m��ridionale���, this species is widespread across the Western Hemisphere from the USA (mostly in the south, but also as far north as Minnesota) to Argentina and across the West Indies (BMNH specimens; Patterson et al., 2015). Elsewhere it is also reported from Africa (De Prins & De Prins, 2015) as well as India and Sri Lanka (Robinson et al., 2014). In the Gal��pagos the available specimens are from Fernandina, Floreana, Isabela, San Crist��bal, Santa Cruz, and Santiago., Published as part of Bernard Landry, 2016, Taxonomic revision of the Spilomelinae (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae s. l.) of the Gal��pagos Islands, Ecuador, pp. 315-399 in Revue suisse de Zoologie 123 (2) on page 339, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.155309, {"references":["Guenee M. A. 1854. Deltoides et Pyralites. Pp. 1 - 448. In: Boisduval J. B. A. D. de & Guenee M. A., Histoire naturelle des insectes. Species General des Lepidopteres 8 8. Roret, Paris.","Peck S. B., Heraty J., Landry B., Sinclair B. J. 1998. Introduced insect fauna of an oceanic archipelago: The Galapagos Islands, Ecuador. American Entomologist 44: 218 - 237.","Causton C. E., Peck S. B., Sinclair B. J., Roque-Albelo L., Hodgson C. J., Landry B. 2006. Alien Insects: Threats and implications for conservation of Galapagos Islands. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 99: 121 - 143.","Roque-Albelo L., Landry B. 2015. Lepidoptera. In: Bungartz F., Herrera H., Jaramillo P., Tirado N., Jimenez-Uzcategui G., Ruiz D., Guezou A., Ziemmeck F. (eds.). Charles Darwin Foundation Galapagos Species Checklist - Lista de Especies de Galapagos de la Fundacion Charles Darwin. Charles Darwin Foundation / Fundacion Charles Darwin, Puerto Ayora, Galapagos: http: // www. darwinfoundation. org / datazone / checklists / terrestrial-invertebrates / Last updated 30 November 2015.","Robinson G. S., Ackery P. R., Kitching I. J., Beccaloni G. W., Hernandez L. M. 2014. HOSTS - a Database of the World's Lepidopteran Hostplants. http: // www. nhm. ac. uk / researchcuration / research / projects / hostplants /","Patterson B. et al. 2015. North American Moth Photographers Group. http: // mothphotographersgroup. msstate. edu.","De Prins J., De Prins W. 2015. Afromoths, online database of Afrotropical moth species (Lepidoptera). World Wide Web electronic publication (www. afromoths. net) [last accessed 30 October 2015]"]}

Herpetogramma sphingealis sp. n., a new species of Crambidae (Lepidoptera), is described from Québec, Canada. The species is included in the genus Herpetogramma Led., 1863, a genus in the subfamily Spilomelinae. Adults and genitalia of this species are described and illustrated, as well as those of H. aeglealis (Walker, 1859) and H. thestealis (Walker, 1859), and adults of the semi-melanic form of H. aeglealis are illustrated.

Important life history traits of animals may parallel those of their food sources, a factor that plays out at multiple trophic levels, potentially influenced by sexual and temporal variation. Here I evaluate the role of three variables in a system featuring a pair of alternative host plants, a herbivore, and its principal primary parasitoid. My test system consists of the fern-feeding moth Herpetogramma theseusalis (Crambidae) and its principal enemy, the parasitoid wasp Alabagrus texanus (Braconidae), which depend on two distantly related host plants, sensitive Onoclea sensibilis (Dryopteridaceae) and marsh Thelypteris palustris (Thelypteridaceae) ferns. I measured the effects of host plant, sex and yearly variation on several aspects of the mass and development times of the moth and wasp on the two host plants. Although the timing of pupation and eclosion, and length of pupal period, varied from year to year, both the moth and wasp often varied in the same way on the two host plants, with faste...

The choice of food plants often assumes critical importance for a herbivore. Although many studies have investigated host-plant choice behavior, few have examined preferences (vs. growth and survival) at multiple stages of the life cycle, notwithstanding the importance of identifying the critical stage(s) in an animal’s life history. Fern moths Herpetogramma theseusalis (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) provide an excellent opportunity to test host-plant choice at several stages. Fern moth larvae feed on distantly related ferns, sensitive Onoclea sensibilis and marsh fern Thelypteris palustris, and adults oviposit on both species. We examined newly hatched larvae, overwintered larvae and ovipositing females to test hypotheses predicting when host-plant choice takes place (overwintering and mobility hypotheses: overwintering stage determines choice of substrate vs. most mobile stage chooses) and the basis for choice (optimal oviposition and enemy-free space hypotheses: resource producing highest fecundity vs. lowest losses to enemies). We also evaluated the hypothesis that host-associated fitness trade-offs explain host specialization. Only ovipositing females, the most mobile stage, exhibited a clear preference (for marsh fern), consistent with the mobility hypothesis. However, their preference for marsh fern fits neither the optimal oviposition hypothesis nor the enemy-free space hypothesis; although some larvae initially grew faster on marsh fern, adults reared from the two ferns did not differ significantly in mass and experienced marginally lower parasitism on sensitive fern. Thus, we found no host-associated fitness trade-offs. Overwintering losses in marsh fern plots exceeded those in sensitive fern, and mixed plots supported the most overwintered larvae. Preference for marsh fern suggests that early success drives host-plant choice, an advantage that later disappears. Temporal variability may prevent closer fits to the hypotheses, because both ferns provide the moths with acceptable resources throughout their life cycles.

Type specimens or the type series of 27 North American Herpetogramma species names were located, mostly in European museums, verified, and dissected. Acharana descripta (Warren) is designated as a new synonym of Herpetogramma phaeopteralis (Guenee). Fifteen lectotypes and 14 paralectotypes are designated where it was deemed necessary to fix and stabilize the current concept of the name. A checklist and a key to nine North American species are provided with photographs of the adults.

1. Variables affecting species at the ends of trophic chains may modify the success of members with which they do not directly interact. The majority of such examples involve three trophic levels, but hyperparasitoids provide an excellent opportunity to examine four-level relationships. 2. The gregarious hyperparasitoid Aprostocetus sp. (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) commonly attacks the primary parasitoid Alabagrus texanus (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), by far the commonest parasitoid of the moth Herpetogramma theseusalis (Lepidoptera: Crambidae). 3. Larvae of this moth feed on ferns of two families, sensitive fern Onoclea sensibilis (Dryopteridaceae) and marsh fern Thelypteris palustris (Thelypteridaceae), in the study area, an old field in Maine, U.S.A. 4. I test the hypotheses that the ferns indirectly affect the reproductive success of the hyperparasitoids and that the ferns produce similar effects at intermediate links. 5. The moths experienced similar success on the two ferns, and the primary parasitoid performed similarly on moths reared from both ferns. The hyperparasitoid parasitized similar proportions of the primary parasitoid from moths that fed on sensitive fern and marsh fern. 6. However, hyperparasitoid broods on primary parasitoids from moths feeding on marsh fern contained approximately one-third more offspring, whose individuals were significantly larger than those from sensitive fern, even though their hosts’ sizes did not differ significantly. 7. An indirect effect, related to the primary producers, thus strongly affected Trophic Level 4 in the absence of a significant effect at intermediate levels. To the best of my knowledge, this relationship has not been previously reported in a multi-year or field-based study of a natural system.

Plant chemical defenses can negatively affect insect herbivore fitness, but they can also decrease herbivore palatability to predators or decrease parasitoid fitness, potentially changing selective pressures on both plant investment in production of chemical defenses and host feeding behavior. Larvae of the fern moth Herpetogramma theseusalis live in and feed upon leaf shelters of their own construction, and their most abundant parasitoid Alabagrus texanus oviposits in early instar larvae, where parasitoid larvae lay dormant for most of host development before rapidly developing and emerging just prior to host pupation. As such, both might be expected to live in a relatively constant chemical environment. Instead, we find that a correlated set of phenolic compounds shows strong seasonal variation both within shelters and in undamaged fern tissue, and the relative level of these compounds in these two different fern tissue types switches across the summer. Using experimental feeding treatments, in which we exposed fern moth larvae to different chemical trajectories across their development, we show that exposure to this set of phenolic compounds reduces the survival of larvae in early development. However, exposure to this set of compounds just before the beginning of explosive parasitoid growth increased parasitoid survival. Exposure during the period of rapid parasitoid growth and feeding decreased parasitoid survival. These results highlight the spatial and temporal complexity of leaf shelter chemistry, and demonstrate the developmental contingency of associated effects on both host and parasitoid, implying the existence of complex selective pressures on plant investment in chemical defenses, host feeding behavior, and parasitoid life history.

Larvae of the pyralid moth, Herpetogramma aeglealis, construct feeding shelters upon the Christmas fern (Polystichum acrostichoides). Field and laboratory study involving 532 shelters showed that as the larvae mature, they sequentially inhabit approximately 5 shelters of 3 distinct types, constructed at night on different fronds of the same plant. The bundle shelter, simple and ephemeral, is first to be inhabited and constructed. The fiddlehead shelter which houses slightly older larvae strongly resembles contemporaneously emerging frond fiddleheads. The final shelter form, the globe, is a silk-bound ball of leaflets at the frond tip. An individual larva usually constructs 3 globe shelters on different fronds of the same plant before completing its development. As shelter sites, sterile Polystichum fronds are chosen preferentially over fertile fronds. The bundle and fiddlehead shelter forms, less abundant, appear cryptic to humans and perhaps to other vertebrates. The final globe shelter form is larger and quite conspicuous. However, the persistence of empty globe shelters left on the plant as the larva moves to a new one may serve to make searching for larvae less profitable for potential predators and parasites. We suggest that the energetic costs of constructing and occupying multiple shelters may be offset by circumvention of reduced frond palatability and reduced exposure to predators and parasites.

Thirty insecticides were evaluated for control of mixed populations of sod webworms, Herpetogramma spp. and Crambus spp., on ‘Tifway’ and ‘Tifgreen’ bermudagrass, Cynodon spp. All of the chemicals except one provided control with at least one rate of formulation evaluated. Fonofos, primiphos-ethyl, and chlorpyrifos provided partial residual control of the second generation of web worms when plots became reinfested 3 or 4 weeks after treatments. No evidence of resistance to any of the currently recommended insecticides was shown.

Nineteen insecticides at a total of 32 rates, formulations or combinations of formulations were evaluated for control of sod webworms (mixed populations of 62% Herpetogramma spp. and 38% Crambus spp.) on Tifgreen bermudagrass, Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Excellent control was obtained with 10 chemical insecticides. Acceptable control was also obtained with Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner.

Two species of the genus Herpetogramma Lederer are reported for the first time in Korea: Herpetogramma licarsisalis (Walker) and Herpetogramma stultalis (Walker). The description, host plants, adult photographs, and pictures of the male and female genitalia are provided.

Insecticides were evaluated for control of sod webworms, Herpetogramma and Crambus spp., on Tifgreen bermudagrass in Florida. Akton, 0-2-chloro-1-(2,5-dichlorophenyl)vinyl) 0,0-diethyl phosphorothioate, provided excellent control for at least 5 weeks or 2 generations of the larvae, and gave significantly better control than any of the other 14 insecticides tested. Formulations of Bacillus thuringiensis provided control of larvae for 1-2 weeks.