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Acacia melanoxylon is highly valued for its commercial applications, with the heartwood exhibiting a range of colors from dark to light among its various clones. The underlying mechanisms contributing to this color variation, however, have not been fully elucidated. In an effort to understand the factors that influence the development of dark heartwood, a comparative analysis was conducted on the microstructure, substance composition, differential gene expression, and metabolite profiles in the sapwood (SW), transition zone (TZ), and heartwood (HW) of two distinct clones, SR14 and SR25. A microscopic examination revealed that heartwood color variations are associated with an increased substance content within the ray parenchyma cells. A substance analysis indicated that the levels of starches, sugars, and lignin were more abundant in SP compared to HW, while the concentrations of phenols, flavonoids, and terpenoids were found to be higher in HW than in SP. Notably, the dark heartwood of the SR25 clone exhibited greater quantities of phenols and flavonoids compared to the SR14 clone, suggesting that these compounds are pivotal to the color distinction of the heartwood. An integrated analysis of transcriptome and metabolomics data uncovered a significant accumulation of sinapyl alcohol, sinapoyl aldehyde, hesperetin, 2′, 3, 4, 4′, 6′-peptahydroxychalcone 4′-O-glucoside, homoeriodictyol, and (2S)-liquiritigenin in the heartwood of SR25, which correlates with the up-regulated expression of CCRs (evm.TU.Chr3.1751, evm.TU.Chr4.654_667, evm.TU.Chr4.675, evm.TU.Chr4.699, and evm.TU.Chr4.704), COMTs (evm.TU.Chr13.3082, evm.TU.Chr13.3086, and evm.TU.Chr7.1411), CADs (evm.TU.Chr10.2175, evm.TU.Chr1.3453, and evm.TU.Chr8.1600), and HCTs (evm.TU.Chr4.1122, evm.TU.Chr4.1123, evm.TU.Chr8.1758, and evm.TU.Chr9.2960) in the TZ of A. melanoxylon. Furthermore, a marked differential expression of transcription factors (TFs), including MYBs, AP2/ERFs, bHLHs, bZIPs, C2H2s, and WRKYs, were observed to be closely linked to the phenols and flavonoids metabolites, highlighting the potential role of multiple TFs in regulating the biosynthesis of these metabolites and, consequently, influencing the color variation in the heartwood. This study facilitates molecular breeding for the accumulation of metabolites influencing the heartwood color in A. melanoxylon, and offers new insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying heartwood formation in woody plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Aims Heartwood plays an important role in maintaining the structural integrity of trees. Although its formation has long been thought to be driven solely by internal ageing processes, more recent hypotheses suggest that heartwood formation acts as a regulator of the tree water balance by modulating the quantity of sapwood. Testing both hypotheses would shed light on the potential ecophysiological nature of heartwood formation, a very common process in trees. Methods We measured quantities of heartwood and sapwood, xylem conduits and the width and number of growth rings on 406 stems of Pericopsis elata with ages ranging from 2 to 237 years. A subset of 17 trees with similar ages but varying growth rate were sampled in a shaded (slower-growth) site and a sun-exposed (faster-growth) site. We used regression analysis and structural equation modelling to investigate the dynamics and drivers of heartwood formation. Key Results We found a positive effect of growth rate on the probability of heartwood occurrence, suggesting an earlier heartwood onset in faster-growing stems. After this onset age, heartwood area increased with stem diameter and age. Despite the similar heartwood production per unit stem diameter increment, shaded trees produced heartwood faster than sun-exposed trees. Tree age and hydraulics showed similar direct effects on heartwood and sapwood area of sun-exposed trees, suggesting their mutual role in driving the heartwood dynamics of sun-exposed trees. However, for shaded trees, only tree hydraulics showed a direct effect, suggesting its prominent role over age in driving the heartwood dynamics in limited growing conditions. The positive relationship between growth rate and maximum stomatal conductance supported this conclusion. Conclusions Heartwood area increases as the tree ages, but at a slower rate in trees where water demand is balanced by a sufficient water supply. Our findings suggest that heartwood formation is not only a structural process but also functional. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

New wood uses of Japanese white birch (Betula platyphylla var. japonica) have attracted much attention in recent years, but false heartwood has led to a decline in commercial value due to its irregular wood color. In this study, we assessed the occurrence of false heartwood and its proportion to stem cross-sectional area (PFH) in individual Japanese white birch (482 trees) in a ca. 70-year-old natural secondary forest. Specifically, we investigated the relative strength of the direct/indirect effects of individual size (BA), growth rate (GR), crown ratio (CR), number of branch scars (NBS), basal area sum of neighboring trees (BAS) and topographic wetness index (TWI) on PFH. In total, 80.3% of trees had false heartwood. CR was found to be the most important factor, acting through direct and indirect negative effects. BA and NBS had a positive effect, and TWI had a negative effect on PFH. BA had a positive correlation with tree age, indicating that PFH can be reduced in trees with faster growth. Simultaneously, BAS had an indirect positive effect on PFH. These results suggested that thinning, which reduces BAS and increases CR, can reduce false heartwood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Acacia melanoxylon is well known as a valuable commercial tree species owing to its high-quality heartwood (HW) products. However, the metabolism and regulatory mechanism of heartwood during wood development remain largely unclear. In this study, both microscopic observation and content determination proved that total amount of starches decreased and phenolics and flavonoids increased gradually from sapwood (SW) to HW. We also obtained the metabolite profiles of 10 metabolites related to phenolics and flavonoids during HW formation by metabolomics. Additionally, we collected a comprehensive overview of genes associated with the biosynthesis of sugars, terpenoids, phenolics, and flavonoids using RNA-seq. A total of ninety-one genes related to HW formation were identified. The transcripts related to plant hormones, programmed cell death (PCD), and dehydration were increased in transition zone (TZ) than in SW. The results of RT-PCR showed that the relative expression level of genes and transcription factors was also high in the TZ, regardless of the horizontal or vertical direction of the trunk. Therefore, the HW formation took place in the TZ for A. melanoxylon from molecular level, and potentially connected to plant hormones, PCD, and cell dehydration. Besides, the increased expression of sugar and terpenoid biosynthesis-related genes in TZ further confirmed the close connection between terpenoid biosynthesis and carbohydrate metabolites of A. melanoxylon. Furthermore, the integrated analysis of metabolism data and RNA-seq data showed the key transcription factors (TFs) regulating flavonoids and phenolics accumulation in HW, including negative correlation TFs (WRKY, MYB) and positive correlation TFs (AP2, bZIP, CBF, PB1, and TCP). And, the genes and metabolites from phenylpropanoid and flavonoid metabolism and biosynthesis were up-regulated and largely accumulated in TZ and HW, respectively. The findings of this research provide a basis for comprehending the buildup of metabolites and the molecular regulatory processes of HW formation in A. melanoxylon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Here, we continued the investigation of anti-HSV-1 activity and neuroprotective potential of 14 polyphenolic compounds isolated from Maackia amurensis heartwood. We determined the absolute configurations of asymmetric centers in scirpusin A (13) and maackiazin (10) as 7R,8R and 1″S,2″S, respectively. We showed that dimeric stilbens maackin (9) and scirpusin A (13) possessed the highest anti-HSV-1 activity among polyphenols 1–14. We also studied the effect of polyphenols 9 and 13 on the early stages of HSV-1 infection. Direct interaction with the virus (virucidal activity) was the main mechanism of the antiviral activity of these compounds. The neuroprotective potential of polyphenolic compounds from M. amurensis was studied using models of 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-and paraquat (PQ)-induced neurotoxicity. A dimeric stilbene scirpusin A (13) and a flavonoid liquiritigenin (6) were shown to be the most active compounds among the tested polyphenols. These compounds significantly increased the viability of 6-OHDA-and PQ-treated Neuro-2a cells, elevated mitochondrial membrane potential and reduced the intracellular ROS level. We also found that scirpusin A (13), liquiritigenin (6) and retusin (3) considerably increased the percentage of live Neuro-2a cells and decreased the number of early apoptotic cells. Scirpusin A (13) was the most promising compound possessing both anti-HSV-1 activity and neuroprotective potential. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Resin production in wood tissues is a regular feature of pine wood species, including southern pine. High resin contents of southern pine wood may increase wood resistance against decay fungi. The current study investigated the effect of resin contents in southern pine wood on decay resistance by exposing non-extracted heartwood, mixed wood (sapwood + heartwood), and sapwood blocks with varying resin content to brown rot, Fomitopsis ostreiformis in a laboratory decay test. Matching blocks of each wood type were successively extracted in a Soxhlet using three solvents to determine resin content and were exposed to decay fungus in parallel. Results showed that mass losses in non-extracted heartwood and mixed wood depended on resin content levels, and very shallow or no mass losses were observed in blocks containing more than 31 % resin content. Sapwood experienced high mass losses, but the presence of resinous extractives significantly increased the decay resistance. All solvent-extracted blocks experienced high mass loss (53–55 %). Scanning electron microscopy showed that penetration of brown rot hyphae and cell damage depended on the resin contents of blocks. Most of the identified compounds through GC-MS belonged to oleoresins, among which monoterpene hydrocarbons, oxygenated monoterpenoids, and sesquiterpenes were more abundant in heartwood than sapwood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Carbon fraction (CF) of trees is essential for quantifying forest carbon (C) stocks. Considerable attention has been paid to CF variations at various levels with the exception of inter- and intra-growth rings. Herein, the inter- and intra-growth ring variation of CF in Pinus tabuliformis was investigated. Elemental analysis was performed to obtain CF values of the earlywood and latewood in each growth ring of the xylem. Patterns of CF variation at the growth ring level were evaluated using mixed-effect models. The results showed that latewood CF, 50.6 %, was significantly higher than earlywood CF, 49.9 % (p < 0.01). In particular, inter-growth ring variations of CF differed between heartwood and sapwood, as well as between juvenile wood and mature wood. CF values decreased nonlinearly with cambium age toward the heartwood or juvenile wood, with estimated least-squares means of 50.4 % and 51.8 %, respectively. While CF values were almost unaltered in sapwood, and slightly decreased in mature wood, with estimated least-squares means of 50.0 % and 50.2 %, respectively. It indicates that patterns of CF variation between juvenile wood and mature wood are important to estimate the C stock of P. tabuliformis. This research provides insights into C uptake dynamics to support forest management and wood utilization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wood pellets produced from fresh sawdust can form and release uncontrolled gases during bulk storage, a tendency referred to as off-gassing. This study investigated the off-gassing tendencies of Scots pine wood pellets made from separated sapwood and heartwood sawdust. The effects of drying temperature, raw material storage, as well as varying proportions of sapwood and heartwood were also investigated. There was a strong linear correlation between off-gassing and sapwood content, with correlation coefficient (R) values greater than 0.9 at p < 0.001 for all the off-gases. An increase in sapwood content of the feedstock led to a significant increase in off-gassing of CO2, CO, and CH4, and O2 consumption. The drying temperature of the raw material had a significant effect on off-gassing of both sapwood (F(8, 26) = 51.32, p < 0.05) and heartwood (F(8, 26) = 334.1, p < 0.05) pellets. Increasing the drying temperature for heartwood resulted in increased off-gassing, while for sapwood, the off-gassing reduced. Storage of sapwood raw material before pelletization reduced the off-gassing of wood pellets, whereas for heartwood, it had no significant impact. Based on the results, it is suggested that a biological process, in combination with the chemical oxidation of fatty acids, lay behind the off-gassing of wood pellets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

South Africa is a water scarce country with minimal natural forests. Plantation forest species such as the Mexican tropical hard pine, Pinus patula Schiede & Deppe ex Schltdl. & Cham., was introduced into the country to satisfy local fibre demand. Today, the majority of pine plantations in South Africa are found in the Mpumalanga province. The province has diverse growing conditions in relation to climate and soil properties. Sample plots were established in even-aged P. patula plantations and stratified according to soil parent material and altitude. Growing conditions of each sample plot were characterised according to climate and soil properties. A total of 540 sample trees were measured for height, diameter, density, and latewood content. The sample trees were harvested to produce 2690 logs. The logs were milled, and the resultant lumber was graded according to density, dynamic modulus of elasticity, and modulus of rupture. Annual maximum temperature had the most significant impact on tree growth, while rainfall correlated with wood density and latewood content of standing trees. However, annual maximum temperature and tree height had a negative relationship with the recovered lumber properties and dimensional stability. Spring rainfall appeared to be the most important factor influencing lumber twist and this was possibly due to the associated larger juvenile core present in the trees. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Extractives, the non-structural component of woody biomass, are frequently targeted for their biocidal potential due to their evolutionary success in deterring pests in both standing trees and downed woody debris. Effective extractive utilization also offers an alternative product stream, where extractives are removed from the woody biomass that can further be used as feedstock for downstream processes (i.e., pulping, nanocellulose production, and biochar) once the extractives are removed. This review aims to provide details on prior studies using wood extractives as wood protectants, highlight the limitations to this approach, and discuss the research opportunities. Naturally durable wood pre-dates preservative-treated wood and has been demonstrated to offer a suitable service life for certain applications where preservative-treated wood is not feasible. Heartwood extractives have been demonstrated to impart bio-deteriorative resistance to naturally durable wood species. These extractives are typically found in the heartwood of living trees and are produced either by the death of parenchyma cells or as the result of external stimuli. The mechanisms of natural durability are not well understood, as heartwood extractives can be extremely variable in their distribution, composition, and efficacy in both living and harvested trees. The underlying complexity of heartwood extractives has hindered their standardization in residential building codes for use as wood preservatives. The use of naturally durable lumber is not always feasible, as woods with exceptionally durable heartwood do not typically yield lumber with acceptable machining properties. A potential approach to overcome the inherent difficulty in establishing guidelines for the appropriate use of naturally durable wood is to focus solely on the extractives as a source of bioactive protectants based on the strategies used on living and dead wood to repel the agents of biodeterioration. This critical review summarizes the relevant literature on naturally durable woods, their extractives, and their potential use as bio-inspired wood protectants. An additional discussion will be aimed at underscoring the past difficulties in adopting this approach and how to overcome the future hurdles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Pith in woody species fulfills essential roles, from functioning as the first vascular tissue in shoots, to serving as starch storage and facilitating heartwood formation. While the spongy cells of pith may die and be reabsorbed at maturity by some species, the pith persists throughout the lifespan of conifer trees. Pith features and functions of extant conifers have been documented in contemporary studies, and pith anatomy has been described for extinct progymnosperms and coniferous ancestors through fossils. However, up to now, few studies have described the wood anatomy of pith in living conifers and covered only 24 species in four families. Here we describe the pith of 7 genera and 16 species from the previously unstudied conifer families of Araucariaceae and Podocarpaceae, based on stained and unstained cross-sections. Comparisons between pith sections of the same tree in successive years yielded insights into maturation of the conifer pith. Conservative pith characteristics were identified among genera and families. Araucariaceae pith is dissimilar on a familial level, but the genus Araucaria is unified by pith shape and heterocellularity. In contrast, all Podocarpaceae piths develop secondary cracks, and most species have irregularly shaped piths. Beyond our study of similarities and differences of pith in Araucariaceae and Podocarpaceae, a look at pith patterns in the paleobotanical record and further examples in living conifers could increase the understanding of conserved characteristics and pith evolution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding the durability of emerging plantation hardwood resources is important for optimising their production and use. This study compared timber density, extractives content and decay resistance in 12–13-year-old plantation and native forest regrowth Gympie messmate (Eucalyptus cloeziana) trees. Density increased from pith to bark for both plantation and native forest trees. Inner heartwood density of the plantation timber was significantly lower than that of the native forest regrowth timber. While the total extractives content of the outer heartwood was comparable in the plantation and native forest regrowth trees, the inner heartwood of the latter contained significantly greater extractives levels. Laboratory decay tests showed that all heartwood zones of plantation and native forest regrowth Gympie messmate were resistant to decay by the white rot Pycnoporus coccineus. The inner heartwood of the plantation timber was, however, susceptible to decay by the brown rot Fomitopsis ostreiformis. The results illustrate the potential variations in wood quality parameters to be considered when moving from native forest to plantation resources that are harvested at a younger age and managed for more rapid wood production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Molecular cues linked to heartwood formation open new (complementary) perspectives to genetic breeding programs of Douglas-fir, a tree species largely cultivated in Europe for the natural durability and civil engineering properties of its wood. Data description: RNAs from a single genotype of Douglas-fir, extracted from three distinct wood zones (outer sapwood, inner sapwood and transition zone) at four vegetative seasons to generate an extensive RNA-seq dataset used to apprehend the in-wood dynamic and seasonality of heartwood formation in this hardwood model species. Previously published data collected on somatic embryos of the same genotype could be merged with the present dataset to upgrade grade the Douglas-fir reference transcriptome. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The formation of a tree's heartwood gives the wood properties such as natural decay resistance and aesthetic color, and often directly determines the value of wood products. Regulating the quantity and quality of heartwood is of great importance to the use of wood. However, the mechanism of heartwood formation has been poorly understood. Results: Using Dalbergia odorifera as the study species, the number of starch grains, the morphology of the nuclei, the changes in the content of water and secondary metabolites were observed continuously in the radial direction of the xylem. The results show that from the outer toward inner sapwood, the starch grains are abundant, the length to diameter ratio of the nuclei is decreasing, and the morphology changes from elongated elliptical and then to round. In the outer transition zone, the starch grains begin to decrease abruptly and the nuclei shrink at a slower rate, with a radial width of approximately 2 mm. In the inner transition zone, the heartwood color begins to appear, the starch grains disappear and a few nuclei with reduced fluorescence are present, with a radial width of approximately 1 mm. Heartwood formation after complete disappearance of the nuclei. The moisture content of the heartwood is higher than that of the sapwood, and the inner transition zone is where the content rises. The secondary metabolites of the heartwood begin to accumulate in large quantities in the inner transition zone. Conclusion: Based on the physiological changes of parenchyma cells in the xylem, the radial width of the transition zone of Dalbergia odorifera is clearly defined as approximately 3 mm. Both the water and secondary metabolite abrupt changes occur at the final stage of programmed cell death, and neither is a direct cause of programmed cell death in parenchyma cells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to focus on the chemical characterization and the anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-termite properties of extractable substances from the heartwood of Tieghemella africana, Testulea gabonensis, Staudtia kamerunensis, Entandrophragma utile in Gabon with a view to their valorization. The results of cold maceration extractions revealed that the extractable content varies with wood species and solvent. The high extract contents were obtained with acetone and ethanol, except for S. kamerunensis where the levels of dichloromethane and water extracts were high, respectively, 3.40 and 6.35%. E. useful showed a high content with dichloromethane (4.15%). Phytochemical screening indicated the presence in the acetonic, ethanolic, and water extracts of the wood species several groups of bioactive molecules, such as polyphenols, flavonoids, free quinones, sterols and triterpenes, and saponins. The results of the total phenols assay corroborated those obtained during the phytochemical screening. The results of anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-termite activities revealed that they vary with wood species, solvent, and concentration in terms of anti-termite activity. The strong anti-inflammatory activities were recorded with the ethanolic, acetonic, and water extracts where the EC50 values of all the essences were the lowest and close to that of our control, diclofenac (555.25 μg/mL). The ethanol extracts of the wood species showed strong activities, particularly those of S. kamerunensis and E. useful where we obtained low EC50 values of 604.13 and 602.38 μg/mL, respectively. The strong antioxidant activities were recorded with the acetonic, ethanolic extracts of S. kamerunensis and E. useful whose respective EC50 values (6.50 and 4.50 μg/mL) for S. kamerunensis and (4.50 and 3.01 μg/mL) for the E. useful. Similarly, the water extract of E. useful whose value is close to that of gallic acid (0.40 μg/mL) our control. The antitermite activity revealed that the acetone and ethanol extracts of the wood species and the water extract of E. useful at 20 mg/mL showed interesting antitermite activities. The strongest activities were recorded with the dichloromethane extracts of the wood species, where the survival rates of the termites were the lowest. Particularly with the dichloromethane extract of E. useful with a survival rate of 30% at 10 mg/mL and 1.70% at 20 mg/mL. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of different microwave energy densities (0, 60, 80, and 100 kWh/m3) on the gas permeability of sapwood and heartwood of radiata pine in the longitudinal, radial, and tangential directions were investigated. The multi-scale pore size distribution was systematically analyzed with various analytical methods. High intensity microwave (HIMW) treatment significantly improved the gas permeability of the wood in three directions, and the gas permeability was positively correlated with the microwave energy density. The gas permeability of the treated sapwood was 1.6–2.5 times higher, and that of the treated heartwood was more than 6 times higher than the untreated wood at the microwave energy density of 100 kWh/m3. The HIMW treatment significantly affected the pore size distribution. In the micropore–mesopore (< 50 nm) range, the surface area and average pore diameter of the treated sapwood samples were 10.68% and 17.12% higher, respectively, and the total pore volume was 31.50% lower than that of the untreated sample. However, the specific surface area and total pore volume of the heartwood samples were 14.92% and 26.06% lower, respectively, and the average pore diameter was 35.55% higher at the microwave energy density of 100 kWh/m3. Treated wood mainly had slit-shaped mesopores (< 10 nm). For macropores (> 50 nm), treated sapwood displayed 20.57% total pore volume increase and 11.66% porosity rise; treated heartwood showed 31.24% total pore volume rise and 20.78% porosity increment. Furthermore, SEM results showed HIMW treatment damaged weak structures like the compound middle lamella and ray parenchyma cells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently, there has been a growing concern among consumers regarding the safety of packaging products, particularly due to the presence of potentially harmful substances like synthetic pigments and inorganic dyes. These substances, which are often used to attract consumer attention, can migrate and contaminate products over extended shelf storage periods. To address this issue, the focus of this research was the development of a biodegradable packaging film using poly(butylene succinate) (PBS) incorporated with natural colorants extracted from roselle (RS) and sappan heartwood (SP). RS and SP serve as non-toxic and alternative pigments when compared to synthetic colorants. The biodegradable packaging films were prepared using blown film extrusion, encompassing different weight percentages of RS and SP (0.1%, 0.2%, and 0.3%). The films exhibited distinct colors, with RS films appearing pink to purple and SP films exhibiting an orange hue. The water vapor transmission rate slightly decreased with an increasing content of RS and SP extracts, indicating improved barrier properties. Additionally, the films showed reduced light transmittance, as evidenced by the UV–Vis light barrier results. The degree of crystallinity in the films was enhanced, as confirmed by X-ray diffraction and differential scanning calorimetry techniques. Regarding mechanical properties, the PBS/RS and PBS/SP films exhibited slight increases in tensile strength and elongation compared to neat PBS films. Moreover, the blended films demonstrated higher stability after undergoing an aging test, further highlighting their potential for use in biodegradable packaging applications. The key advantages of these films lie in their non-toxicity, biodegradability, and overall environmental friendliness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nanmu (Phoebe zhennan) has a unique fragrance and is a high-quality tree species for forest conservation. The types and contents of volatile compounds in different tissues of nanmu wood are different, and the study of its volatile metabolites can help us to understand the source of its fragrance and functions. In order to explore the metabolites related to the wood fragrance of nanmu and to find out the unique volatile substances in the heartwood, gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was performed to analyze the non-targeted metabolomics in five radial tissues from the sapwood to the heartwood of nanmu. A total of 53 volatile metabolites belonging to 11 classes were detected in all tissues, including terpenes, aromatic hydrocarbons, organoheterocyclics, phenols, esters, organic acids, alcohols, alkaloids, alkane, indoles derivatives, and others. And most of the volatile metabolites were identified for the first time in nanmu wood. Among them, terpenes and aromatic hydrocarbons were the main volatile components. In addition, 22 differential metabolites were screened from HW and SW, HW, and TZ via metabolomic analysis. Among these DAMs, three volatile metabolites (cadinene, a sesquiterpenoid; p-cymene, a monoterpenoid; 1,3,5-triisopropylbenzene, an aromatic hydrocarbon) contributed heavily to the characteristic fragrance of the heartwood. Additionally, the expression of transcripts showed that the unigenes in the terpenoid biosynthesis pathway were especially up-regulated in the SW. Therefore, we speculated that fragrance-related metabolites were synthesized in SW and then deposited in heartwood during sapwood transformed to heartwood. The expression levels of transcription factors (e.g., WRKY, C2H2, NAC) acted as the major regulatory factors in the synthesis of terpenoid. The results lay the foundations for further studies on the formation mechanism of fragrance components in nanmu wood and also provide a reference for the further development and utilization of nanmu wood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ethyl‐acetate extract of heartwood of Kigelia africana Lam. affords tecomaquinone‐I (1), lapachol (2), dehydro‐α‐lapachone (3), cluytyl ferulate (4), kigelinone (5), D‐sesamin (6), paulownin (7), wodeshiol (8) and cycloolivil (9). Isolation of cycloolivil from this plant is being reported for the first time. The structures of these compounds were elucidated by advanced spectroscopic methods (1H, 13C NMR, IR & Mass spectrometry). Structure of cycloolivil (9) was confirmed by X‐ray crystallographic analysis. In order to study the anti‐tubercular activity and to develop new drugs from natural sources, molecular docking studies of isolated phytochemicals were performed for potential inhibitory action towards Type I polyketide synthase 13 (Pks13). For this purpose, isoniazid, and a co‐crystallized PDB ligand were used as reference drug. Tecomaquinone‐I exhibited best docking score (−12.4 kcal/mol) among all the tested compounds. Molecular simulation and QSAR study of tecomaquinone‐I favoured docking results. Hence, the present study suggests that tecomaquinone‐I exhibits potent anti‐tubercular activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This document is a correction notice for an article titled "Genotype-Environment Interaction and Horizontal and Vertical Distributions of Heartwood for Acacia melanoxylon R.Br." The correction addresses mistakes in the legend for DBH and DGH data shown in tables 1, 6, and 7. The incorrect data in table 1 was removed, and the correct data was retained. The data related to DBH and DGH in tables 6 and 7 were also corrected, and the texts related to these tables were revised. The correction does not affect the scientific conclusions of the article. The document also presents a table showing the variation statistics of growth and wood characteristics within different clones. The table includes measurements such as height, stem diameter, and wood density for each clone. The statistics provide information on the range, mean, standard deviation, and coefficient of variation for each characteristic. This information can be useful for researchers studying the growth and wood properties of different clones. Additionally, the document provides a table with data on various measurements of trees in two different locations. The measurements include height, diameter at breast height, diameter at ground height, stem volume, height to crown base, height to crown top, height to first branch, stem wood volume, height to live crown, height to dead crown, height to live branch, and stem area. The data shows the range, mean, standard deviation, and coefficient of variation for each measurement. This information can be useful for researchers studying tree growth and [Extracted from the article]

The size-related xylem adjustments required to maintain a constant leaf-specific sapwood conductance (K LEAF) with increasing height (H) are still under discussion. Alternative hypotheses are that: (i) the conduit hydraulic diameter (Dh) at any position in the stem and/or (ii) the number of sapwood rings at stem base (NSWr) increase with H. In addition, (iii) reduced stem elongation (Δ H) increases the tip-to-base conductance through inner xylem rings, thus possibly the NSWr contributing to K LEAF. A detailed stem analysis showed that Dh increased with the distance from the ring apex (DCA) in all rings of a Picea abies and a Fagus sylvatica tree. Net of DCA effect, Dh did not increase with H. Using sapwood traits from a global dataset, NSWr increased with H , decreased with Δ H , and the mean sapwood ring width (SWrw) increased with Δ H. A numerical model based on anatomical patterns predicted the effects of H and Δ H on the conductance of inner xylem rings. Our results suggest that the sapwood/heartwood transition depends on both H and Δ H , and is set when the carbon allocation to maintenance respiration of living cells in inner sapwood rings produces a lower gain in total conductance than investing the same carbon in new vascular conduits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sappanwood is a resourceful, flowering tree belongs to the family Leguminosae with its origin mainly reported from Southeast Asia. It has been used for ages to cure human ailments including heart diseases, jaundice, respiratory problems, coughs, wounds, and allergies. The different parts of sappanwood including wood, heartwood, seeds, leaves, and bark are reported with bioactive constituents, which deliver essential assistance to the human body. Beyond contribution to health status, they also have encouraging benefits for food industries. The brazilin extracted from the heartwood part of sappanwood has been used as a food preservative and as an ingredient for functional foods. The studies prescribed in the given manuscript defined the role of sappanwood and its parts (wood, bark, seeds, leaves, and heartwood) in nutritional, food, and pharmacological area. Recent studies have shown several promising activities, particularly relaxant, digestive, antioxidant, antimicrobial, antispasmodic, anticancer, and antagonistic effects. The popularity of sappanwood because of its medicinal and industrial importance specifies comprehensive references for its nutritional benefits. The existent work stated the recent research conveyed till date for valuation of nutritional eminence, phytochemicals constituents, industrial applications, and pharmacological significance of sappanwood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spalted heartwood is valued for its vibrant colors, patterns, and decay-free appearance. Using microscopy, scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and non-targeted metabolomics, we aimed to study some distinctive features of black patterning. The results showed that cocci might be associated with the production of spalted heartwood. There was an absence of decay in the spalted heartwood because the cocci had not aggressively attacked the cell walls. 4-pyridoxine, often associated with the bacterial stimulation of organisms, was identified as an upregulated metabolite in the black-patterned wood compared to non-colored areas. We identified four primary metabolic pathways related to bacterial activity associated with the black patterning: pentose and glucuronate interconversions, ATP-binding cassette transporters, histidine metabolism, and plant hormone signal transduction. These results suggest that microbes might play a significant role in the development of the heartwood's distinctive black pattern in Diospyros spp. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the effect of high-intensity microwave (HIMW) treatment on the chemistry of sapwood and heartwood of radiata pine. The wet chemical method, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction (XRD) were utilized to assess and evaluate the effect of different microwave energy densities (0, 60, 80, and 100 kWh/m3) on the chemical composition, chemical structure, and cellulose crystallinity of both sapwood and heartwood. The results indicated that the greatest changes in the relative content of lignin and cellulose were observed at a microwave energy density of 80 kWh/m3. Furthermore, XPS analysis demonstrated a decrease in the O/C ratio as the microwave energy density increased. When the energy density of microwave reached 100 kWh/m3, the O/C ratio of sapwood and heartwood decreased by 10.2% and 19.6%, respectively. At the same time, no notable changes were detected in the FTIR spectra of the microwave-treated samples. Due to the recrystallization of cellulose and the presence of aromatic C=O groups, which could be linked to the rise in lignin content, there were slight variations in several absorption intensities and peak positions, such as O–H groups. As microwave energy density increased, both the crystallinity index (CI) and cellulose crystal width (D200) of HIMW-treated samples increased accordingly. The findings indicated that the chemistry of radiate pine's sapwood and heartwood was affected differently by the microwave treatment. Notably, the heartwood exhibited a more pronounced impact compared to the sapwood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plantation forest species were introduced into South Africa due to limited availability of native forests for wood-derived products. Currently, the Mexican pine species, Pinus patula, is the most widely planted softwood species in the country. To study the effect of growth environment on wood and processing properties for the species, sample plots were established in a 20-year rotation covering a wide range of soil geologies and altitudes in Mpumalanga, South Africa. Temperature and seasonal rainfall were also determined for the sample plots. Randomly selected sample trees were harvested from the plots and processed at a plywood plant to determine veneer recovery and quality. Trees grown on sites composed of granite soils, with higher annual maximum temperatures and less rainfall, found in the Highveld region, displayed superior tree size, slenderness, and volume growth, compared to trees grown on dolomite and shale soils common to the Lowveld region. Veneer derived from Lowveld trees had more splits which were largely related to defects. Larger trees also had a greater percentage volumetric heartwood and a smaller live crown, compared to smaller trees. Highveld trees had greater net veneer recovery and produced better quality veneer than trees grown on the Lowveld. In the Mpumalanga forestry region, strong co-relatedness exists between soil geology, altitude, and climate. Although tree form and wood properties were found to differ with varying soil geology and altitude, these differences were primarily related to climate rather than soil properties. These findings highlight the pitfalls associated with neglecting either climate or soil properties when analysing site-specific growing conditions on tree growth and form. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sappan wood (Caesalpinia sappan) is a tropical hardwood tree found in Southeast Asia. Sappan wood contains a water-soluble compound, which imparts a red color named brazilin. Sappan wood is utilized to produce dye for fabric and coloring agents for food and beverages, such as wine and meat. As a valuable medicinal plant, the tree is also known for its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer properties. It has been observed that sappan wood contains various bioactive compounds, including brazilin, brazilein, sappan chalcone, and protosappanin A. It has also been discovered that these substances have various health advantages; they lower inflammation, enhance blood circulation, and are anti-oxidative in nature. Sappan wood has been used as a medicine to address a range of illnesses, such as gastrointestinal problems, respiratory infections, and skin conditions. Studies have also suggested that sappan wood may have anticarcinogenic potential as it possesses cytotoxic activity against cancer cells. Based on this, the present review emphasized the different medicinal properties, the role of phytochemicals, their health benefits, and several food and nonfood applications of sappan wood. Overall, sappan wood has demonstrated promising medicinal properties and is an important resource in traditional medicine. The present review has explored the potential role of sappan wood as an essential source of bioactive compounds for drug development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Caesalpinia sappan (CS) has been commonly used in beverage and folk medicine in China and ASEAN countries because of its various therapeutic properties. Only the heartwood has long been used in traditional medicines due to the presence of high concentration of brazilin (one of the most important bioactive compounds), whereas the other parts are limited in use. Thus, this work aimed to investigate ways of utilizing other parts of CS. This information is important for further use of other CS parts to promote zero waste and hence sustainable resource utilization. Herein, the crude ethanolic (CEE) and crude aqueous (CAE) extracts from twelve parts of CS were evaluated for their biological activities for the first time. Our work demonstrates that not only the heartwood, but also other parts of CS exhibit interesting biological activities. CAE from heartwood of branches exhibits the highest antioxidant activity, which is higher than that of the positive control, butylated hydroxytoluene. CEE from florets shows the highest inhibitory effect against α-amylase, while CAE of barks shows better α-glucosidase inhibitory activity than the existing glucosidase inhibitor (acarbose). Molecular docking of brazilin (key bioactive compound) to both α-amylase and glucosidase can also confirm the tight binding of brazilin to α-glucosidase. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

R2R3-MYB transcription factors (TFs) form one of the most important TF families involved in regulating various physiological functions in plants. The heartwood of Dalbergia odorifera is a kind of high-grade mahogany and valuable herbal medicine with wide application. However, the role of R2R3-MYB genes in the growth and development of D. odorifera, especially their relevance to heartwood formation, has not been revealed. A total of 126 R2R3-MYBs were screened from the D. odorifera genome and named DodMYB1-126 based on their location on 10 chromosomes. The collinearity results showed that purification selection was the main driving force for the evolution of the R2R3-MYB TFs family, and whole genome/fragment replication event was the main form for expanding the R2R3-MYB family, generating a divergence of gene structure and function. Comparative phylogenetic analysis classified the R2R3-MYB TFs into 33 subfamilies. S3-7,10,12-13,21 and N4-7 were extensively involved in the metabolic process; S9,13,16-19,24-25 and N1-3,8 were associated with the growth and development of D. odorifera. Based on the differential transcriptional expression levels of R2R3-MYBs in different tissues, DodMYB32, DodMYB55, and DodMYB89 were tentatively screened for involvement in the regulatory process of heartwood. Further studies have shown that the DodMYB89, localized in the nucleus, has transcriptional activation activity and is involved in regulating the biosynthesis of the secondary metabolites of heartwood by activating the promoters of the structural genes DodI2'H and DodCOMT. This study aimed to comprehensively analyze the functions of the R2R3-MYB TFs and screen for candidate genes that might be involved in heartwood formation of D. odorifera. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sandal (Santalum album L.) is one of the most valuable hemiparasitic tree species cultivated for its scented heartwood and oil. The economic yield from sandal depends on the hosts associated with it. Previous studies show that the sandal-host interaction is related to certain physiological, genetic and molecular mechanisms that enable them to identify host plants, to grow invasively into the hosts, and to establish connections to withdraw water and other resources from the hosts. However, the understanding of these mechanisms is still very vague. Our observations from the three-month-old sandal seedlings-host interaction study revealed the complex and multifaceted character of the host-parasite signalling mechanism. Besides, we found numerous unsolved questions and a significant knowledge gap in this field. Therefore, this article aims to correlate and contrast our observations with previous findings and to deliver some key questions to bridge the knowledge gap in future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Radiocontaminated Cryptomeria japonica from Iitate village in Fukushima was analyzed in terms of the bark, sapwood and heartwood. Both 134Cs and 137Cs activities were confirmed in these wood components. The sum of 134Cs and 137Cs activities was the highest in the bark, the lowest in the sapwood and that of the heartwood in between. Although the holocellulose isolated from the bark was contaminated by 134Cs and 137Cs activities, these radiocesiums were not detected in the holocelluloses from sapwood and heartwood. Similar results were obtained for dioxane lignins isolated from sapwood and heartwood. An examination of the FTIR spectra of holocelluloses and dioxane lignins from the bark, sapwood and heartwood of C. japonica originated from radiocontaminated Iitate, and radiocontamination-free Fuji areas revealed that the structures of the constitutions of the former wood were not altered by the radiocontamination. Furthermore, the FTIR spectra of the outer bark and inner bark holocelluloses from the artifically 137Cs-impregnated Fuji tree were similar to those of the outer bark and inner bark holocelluloses of the radiocontaminated Iitate tree. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents the experimental results concerning the amount of extractable substances and the color changes determined by the reaction of the tannins contained in wood with iron. Tests were performed comparatively with sapwood and heartwood samples of two Quercus species, namely Turkey oak (Quercus cerris L.) and sessile oak (Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl.). The findings show that Turkey oak sapwood has an unexpectedly high amount of extractable substances, higher than the heartwood of the same species. This result was obtained with three extraction methods (cold water, hot water, and NaOH 1% solution). The FTIR investigation of the extracts impregnated on quantitative filter paper seems to confirm these results. Visual assessment and color measurements after applying FeCl3 highlight that both oak species are prone to staining in contact with iron due to their tannin content. The values of the total colour difference between the state and after the reaction with FeCl3, lower fer for Turkey oak compared to sessile oak, correlate with a lower extractive content of this wood species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Quercus cerris (Turkey oak) has been categorised as a droughttolerant species because it can survive with rainfall below 400 mm/year, and it usually develops deep and penetrating taproots. This characteristic suggests that Turkey oak is a survival candidate species to the future environment with the predicted climate scenarios in Hungary. Potentially, Turkey oak could support a sustainable supply of timber to the Hungarian wood industry in the future, as the aesthetic value is similar to that of noble oaks. The objectives of the study are to determine 1; the selected micro-level wood properties (wood tissue characteristics) and 2; the selected macrolevel wood properties (tree-ring width, sapwood-heartwood ratio) for Turkey oak from two different sites. The heartwood portion for all trees constituted 67-82% of cross-diameter. The growth-ring width decreased from pith to bark. The annual rings in the sapwood had a width value range of 1000 to 1600 µm; in heartwood 1600 to 2500 µm; in juvenile wood 2400 to 3300 µm. Soil quality and stand composition had a significant effect on growth-ring width. Fibre length ranged from 800.03 to 1305.59 μm, whereas fibre-wall thickness varied between 11.73 and 18.51 μm, with soil quality and species composition having highly significant influence. The earlywood parts of the growth rings had a vessel diameter range of 274.62-401.54 μm, whereas the latewood portion ranged from 46.50 to 190.08 μm. Overall, stand composition was a major source of variation in the properties studied. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, the natural durability of commercial wood (beech wood) was studied by measuring its water exclusion efficacy and durability against fungi. This information was utilized in the Meyer-Veltrup model to calculate the resistance dose. The results showed that Fagus orientalis (Lipsky) heartwood and sapwood were less durable (DC 4-5). After one hour of immersion, the water uptake in F. orientalis sapwood was 19%, slightly more than that determined with F. orientalis heartwood (18.9%). Water immersion after 24 h was highest for F. orientalis sapwood (45.4%), followed by F. orientalis heartwood (40.9%). Up to 54.2% median MLF on F. orientalis heartwood and up to 61.1% median MLF on F. orientalis sapwood were attributed to the white fungus T. versicolor. In contrast, the lowest median MLF was caused by F. orientalis heartwood and sapwood by the white fungus H. fragiforme. 35.4% median MLF on F. orientalis was caused by terrestrial microcosms. Based on the resistance model, the first signs of fungal decay on F. orientalis heartwood and sapwood wood will develop after 312 and 294 days of favorable conditions, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this research was to establish comparatively some relevant features of Turkey oak and sessile oak wood, in order to better understand the drying behavior of these species. The analyzed samples were obtained from freshly harvested trees of the same age, originating from the Southern Sub-Carpathians. The microscopic analysis revealed that Turkey oak has larger earlywood pores than sessile oak. In heartwood, they are partly filled with tyloses for both species. The macroscopic analysis showed that Turkey oak wood has a much lower proportion of heartwood (only 50%) compared to sessile oak (90%). The comparative FTIR analysis of the two species showed similar qualitative chemical composition, but also some differences between sapwood and heartwood regarding the relative proportion of the main constituents, and very likely in the structure of lignin. High amounts of extractives were found in Turkey oak sapwood (5.34% in cold water, 7.77% in hot water, and 21.60% in NaOH 1%), close to the values obtained in sessile oak heartwood. The research also revealed that the Turkey oak sapwood and heartwood have statistically similar values of oven-dry density, shrinkage coefficient, fiber saturation point, while in sessile oak, the values are clearly higher in the heartwood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gastric ulcer is a common health issue. Cotinus coggygria heartwood extracts rich in the flavonoids fustin and sulfuretin have shown protective effects in a rat model of indomethacin-induced gastric ulceration. Fustin itself has been protective in a rat model of ethanol-induced gastric ulcer. In the present study we aimed to reveal the effect of the flavonoid fustin isolated from Cotinus coggygria heartwood in a rat model of indomethacin-induced gastric ulceration. Fustin was isolated from Cotinus coggygria heartwood and purified. The experiment was performed on 30 male Wistar rats allocated to three groups – Control, Indo and F10. F10 group was pretreated with fustin (10 mg/kg b.w. for 7 days). Rats were sacrificed and macroscopic, histopathological and immunohistochemical investigations of the stomachs were performed. Indomethacin caused severe mucosal damage, proven by the macroscopic, microscopic and immunohistochemical gastric mucosa investigation. Fustin pretreatment slightly reduced the macroscopic indices for gastric damage (ulcer number, area, score and index), and significantly alleviated the severity of the microscopic indices (mucosal erosions, necrosis, hemorrhages and inflammation). In fustin-pretreated rats, the expression of NF-κB was reduced in comparison with indomethacin-treated animals. In conclusion, fustin exerted a gastroprotective action in an indomethacin-induced gastric ulceration model, probably due to its anti-inflammatory activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

False heartwood in European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) is a significant defect reducing the usability of the wood for aesthetic reasons. The aim of this work was to compare the chemical composition of mature wood and false heartwood of beech regarding their different coloring. The content of the main wood components, extractives, polyphenolic compounds, and soluble carbohydrates was determined. In addition, FTIR (Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy) analysis of mature wood, border zones and false heartwood was also performed. Chemical analyses showed a slightly higher content of holocellulose in false heartwood compared to mature wood. The differences in cellulose and lignin content are minimal. The content of both lipophilic and hydrophilic extractives is higher in mature wood. Hydrophilic extract from mature wood contains more phenolics and soluble carbohydrates compared to false heart. According to ATR-FTIR (Attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy) analysis it can be assumed that there is an increase in the content of polyphenolic extractives in the border zone, especially in the darkest colored zone next to the false heart. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Differences in the density of beech wood in an absolutely dry state in individual zones: sapwood, mature wood, and false heartwood through a cross-section of the trunk are presented in the paper. The wood density of individual zones was determined with a digital density meter. Experimental measurements and subsequent statistical processing of the measured values showed that the density of beech samples with a false heartwood has a decreasing tendency through the cross-section of the trunk from the center of the trunk to the edge. The highest density ρ0 = 703.8 ± 36.1 kg.m-3 was observed in the dry state of beech samples with false heartwood. The density of mature wood in the absolutely dry state was 5.5% less compared to false heartwood, and the density of sapwood was 13.6 % less compared to false heartwood. The proven differences in the density of absolutely dry beech wood in the individual zones do not exceed the natural range of the density values of the beech wood (Fagus sylvatica L.) mentioned in the professional literature. For the above reason, it is not necessary to take into account the changes in the density of the wood through the cross-section of the trunk in common technical applications. The presented data contribute to the objectification of information about the properties of beech wood and enrich current knowledge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The height, diameter, and leaf area of trees influence the anatomical structures because rapid growth requires maintenance of the water conduction in sapwood, despite environmental variations that may limit water supply. Our objective was to evaluate the influence of water availability conditions on the soil in humid and dry sites, on the percentage of sapwood along the trunk, and on the hydraulic properties of the wood of eucalyptus clones. The experimental plantings were carried out in Brazil in humid and dry sites. Six-year-old E. urophylla and E. grandis × E. camaldulensis clones were evaluated under 100% water (W) at each site considering local precipitation and 33% rainfall exclusion (WE) conditions. The wood was evaluated for heartwood and sapwood percentage, apparent sapwood density, diameter, wall thickness and vessel area, potential hydraulic conductivity, and Huber value. Rainfall exclusion at the dry site promoted an increase of 9% of sapwood when compared to the humid site, with an impact on diameter, area, wall thickness and vessel composition index, and lower Huber value for E. grandis × E. camaldulensis wood. The rainfall exclusion increased the sapwood percentage and reduced the growth of E. urophylla. E. grandis × E. camaldulensis had a higher sapwood apparent density at the dry site, while E. urophylla had a higher density at the humid site. The genetic diversity of the clones was expressed in the tree growth and in the sapwood content and was modified by humid and dry sites, which demonstrates different rusticity levels of the clones. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was carried out to examine the effectiveness of wood extract Tectona grandis (Teak) as preservative material against brown rot fungi on rubberwood. This is with a view to making rubber wood more resistant to fungi using an environmentally friendly treatment method like the natural extractives from Teak wood. The heartwood samples of Tectona grandis were extracted in hot water and used in the treatment of rubber wood. Samples of rubberwood were prepared in dimensions of 20mm x 20mm x 9mm for fungal tests. Before the fungal tests, rubberwood samples were oven-dried at 105°C till constant weight was attained. Teak heartwood was extracted using hot water and some of the oven-dried rubberwood samples were soaked in the extract for 24 hours. The chemical constituents of leached extracts of Teak heartwood were analyzed using the Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy (GC-MS) method. The unextracted and extracted Teak samples (in the same dimension as the rubberwood samples for fungal tests), rubberwood samples soaked in Teak extracts and untreated rubberwood were all exposed to brown-rot fungus (Serpula lacrymans) for seven weeks. Visual ratings of the spread of the fungus mycelium on the samples were recorded weekly, while the weight loss due to fungal exposure was calculated after the exposure period. The density value of Tectona grandis wood samples (816.99kg/m3) was higher than the value (573.80kg/m3) reported for Hevea brasiliensis wood samples. Rubber wood was not dimensionally stabilized after treatment with Teak extracts (47%) as the water absorption values of rubber wood were not significantly different from those soaked in water (49%). However, rubber wood treated with Teak extracts showed higher resistance to brown-rot fungi (10.11%) compared to the untreated samples (24.89%). This result indicated that the treatment of rubber wood with Teak extracts enhanced its resistance to brown-rot fungi, and the level of protection may have been conferred by the presence of some chemicals compounds such as saponin and tannin in the extracts of Teak heartwood wood. This study has shown that it is feasible to extract Teak heartwood as a bio-preservative to improve the resistance of other non-durable wood species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Acacia melanoxylon (blackwood) is a valuable wood with excellent-quality heartwood extensively utilized worldwide. The main aim of this study was to confirm the horizontal and vertical variation and provide estimated values of genetic gains and clonal repeatabilities for improving breeding program of A. melanoxylon. Six blackwood clones at 10 years old were analyzed in Heyuan and Baise cities in China. Stem trunk analysis was conducted for sample trees to explore the differences between heartwood and sapwood. The heartwood radius (HR), heartwood area (HA), and heartwood volume (HV) in heartwood properties decreased as tree height (H) in growth traits increased, and the HV = 1.2502 DBH (diameter at breast height)1.7009 model can accurately estimate the heartwood volume. Furthermore, G × E analysis showed that the heritabilities of the eleven indices, including DBH, DGH (diameter at ground height), H, HR, SW (sapwood width), BT (bark thickness), HA, SA (sapwood area), HV, HRP (heartwood radius percentage), HAP (heartwood area percentage), and HVP (heartwood volume percentage) were between 0.94 and 0.99, and repeatabilities of the eleven indices were between 0.74 and 0.91. Clonal repeatability of DBH (0.91), DGH (0.88), and H (0.90) in growth traits, HR (0.90), HVP (0.90), and HV (0.88) in heartwood properties were slightly higher than for SA (0.74), SW (0.75), HAP (0.75), HRP (0.75), and HVP (0.75). These data also implied that the growth characteristics of heartwood and sapwood of blackwood clones were less affected by the environment and had substantial heritability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding wood cell wall pore geometry and distribution is the basis for studying its macroscopic properties. This research investigated the pore fractal dimension using the pore size distribution of selected softwoods and hardwoods. Nitrogen gas analyzer was used to study the detailed structural parameters of wood pore size distributions and use as a raw data to assess their fractal dimension. The results revealed significant variability in pore size distribution, porosity, pore volume, specific surface area, and fractal dimension. The cell wall pore size distribution ranged from 1.41 (minimum) to 442 nm (maximum). Western red cedar heartwood and sapwood show a higher and lower number of micropores, respectively, in the wood cell wall. The results also showed that the fractal dimensions of the cell wall pore spaces of wood vary between 2.92 and 2.97. There was no significant difference in fractal dimensions between wood types and species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Japanese longhorn beetle, Anaglyptus subfasciatus, infests coniferous trees resulting in stained wood and low-value discolored lumber. In this study, the discolored Hinoki (Chamaecyparis obtusa) wood was analysed by GC-MS for n-hexane extract, and laboratory wood block tests against termite was carried out. Stained wood had anti-termitic resistance similar to normal heartwood, and it had about twice the n-hexane extract by weight than obtained from heartwood. One compound, nerolidol, was characteristically found in the stained wood. The results suggest that the stained wood may have produced some bioactive components due to damage by wood decay organisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The wood of Michelia macclurei Dandy (MD) is an excellent material that is widely used in the furniture, handicraft, and construction industries. However, less research has been conducted on the chemical composition and biological activity of heartwood, which is the main valuable part of the wood. This study aimed to investigate the chemical composition and biological activities of the heartwood of Michelia macclurei Dandy (MDHW) and to confirm the active ingredients. Triple quadrupole gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was used to characterize the volatile components of MDHW, while ultra-performance liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry was used to analyze the non-volatile components (UPLC-MS). The total reducing power, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical, and 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS) radical scavenging assays, acetylcholinesterase and α-glucosidase inhibition assays, and an antimicrobial test of 4 gram bacteria were used to describe the in vitro bioactivities. The GC-MS analysis showed that the volatile components of MDHW were mainly fatty compounds and terpenoids, with sesquiterpenes and their derivatives dominating the terpene composition. β-elemene was the main terpene component in the steam distillation (11.88%) and ultrasonic extraction (8.2%) methods. A total of 67 compounds, comprising 45 alkaloids, 9 flavonoids, 6 lignans, and others, were found by UPLC-MS analysis. The primary structural kinds of the non-volatile components were 35 isoquinoline alkaloids. Alkaloids were the predominant active constituent in all MDHW extracts, including crude extracts, alkaloid fractions, and non-alkaloid fractions. These extracts all demonstrate some biological effects in terms of antioxidant, enzyme inhibition, and bacterial inhibition. The findings of this study show that MDHW is abundant in chemical structure types, has great bioactivity assessment, and has the potential to be used to create natural antioxidants, products that postpone Alzheimer's disease and lower blood sugar levels and antibacterial agents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new benzofuran, Cochinfuran A (1), and four known benzofurans (2-5) were isolated from the heartwood of Dalbergia cochinchinensis Pierre ex Laness. The chemical structure of the new benzofuran was determined based on broad NMR and mass spectrometry evaluation. Bioactivity assays showed that the compounds 1-3 and 5 were found as anti-inflammatory agents with IC50 values 49.01 ± 1.54, 1368.93 ± 0.98, 67.48 ± 0.92 and 77.91 ± 1.53 µM, respectively. They could reduce the production of NO (P<0.001) with 3.52~7.04, 1.96~7.84, 1.85~7.40 and 0.98~3.93 µM and restrained LDH (P<0.01) with 3.52~7.04, 3.93~7.84, 3.70~7.40 and 0.98~3.93 µM in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages, respectively, the compound 4 (IC50 218.20 ± 3.39 µM) showed no anti-inflammatory activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new chalcone compound, methyl 5-cinnamoyl-2-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzoate (1), and a new cinnamylphenol compound, methyl 3-cinnamyl-5-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzoate (2) together with four known compounds (3-6) were isolated from the CH2Cl2 fraction of Dalbergia melanoxylon. Their structures were elucidated by comprehensive spectral measurements including NMR techniques, mass spectrometry, single crystal X-ray diffraction and, together with comparison of the literature data. According to the determination results of compound 1 and 2 on RAW 264.7 cell viability, the IC50 values of compounds were found to be 3.2 and 383.8 µM, respectively. Compared with LPS model group, compounds 1 and 2 were found to be significantly reduce the release of NO in the concentration ranges of 1.2~9.6 and 33.7 µM (P<0.01), and significantly inhibit the secretion of LDH in the range of 4.8~9.6 and 16.8~33.7 µM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The major problem leading to substantial waste in the food industry is the spoilage of food products during transportation and storage periods. Consequently, the scope of this research focuses on the development and preparation a pH responsive monitoring films based on biodegradable materials of poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) and natural colorant extract from Caesalpinia sappan L. heartwood (SP). These monitoring films were prepared by a solution casting method and the film stability was improved by crosslinking with citric acid (CA). The red tone of monitoring film without CA was observed, while the crosslinked monitoring film showed a yellow color, which occurs from the structural change of brazilin (structure presenting in SP) to brazilein under acidic conditions. From the SEM and FTIR results, the monitoring film showed high compatibility between phases, improvements in light barrier properties and good WVTR performance. The tensile strength and elongation at break were slightly increased. For pH responsive properties, the monitoring films showed a high response with NH3 gas detection with the change in color from a yellow tone to a red tone. These results indicated that the monitoring films have potential to be applied as food packaging for meat, fish, pork, chicken, and other foods that generate ammonium gas during spoilage. Therefore, these high stable, and non-toxic biodegradable PVA films that incorporated with SP extract and crosslinked by CA have the potential to be used for food spoilage detection in packaging. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The characteristics of the annual growth rings are indicators of the growth and quality of the wood. At 11 years of age, 90 F1 hybrid pine trees of Pinus elliottii x Pinus caribaea var. hondurensis were sampled from two sites. The sample consisted of 15 families and 3 positions in the genetic growth ranking. Disks were taken at 0.10 m, 1.30 m, and 4.45 m, colored area (%) in the central zone of the log, ring width, growth-ring area, and proportion of latewood were evaluated. The data were analyzed with mixed linear models. Statistically significant differences were found between families for the studied variables, except for latewood percentage. Family 02 showed higher growth and a low proportion of pink core. Families 01 and 03 had a higher percentage of colored area. The percentage of colored area increased with tree height. The ring width decreased with tree height and was higher for families 01, 02, 03, 04, 05, and 07. The latewood percentage increased from the pith to the bark and from the tree base to the crown. To conclude, top-growth families exhibited higher mean ring width and ring area than lower-growth families but the same proportion of latewood. These are desirable characteristics for obtaining wood quality for structural uses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Teakwood from fast-growth plantations is commercialized at increasingly younger ages for economic reasons. However, wood features are influenced by the age of the tree. This study examined how age affects heartwood proportion, color parameters, chemical composition, and natural teakwood durability. Trees with 5, 10, 15, and 20 years of fastgrowth at commercial plantations located in Mato Grosso, Brazil were evaluated. The base diameter of the trees ranged from 13.1 (5 years) to 28.3 cm (20 years), and the heartwood percentage increased from 16.3 to 60.0%, respectively. The color parameters in the CIELab system indicated that wood became darker and more saturated, and the predominance of yellow color decreased compared with red as age advanced. The total extractive content ranged between 7.4 (5 years) and 9.6% (15 years), without a clear trend of age affecting the extractive content. The extractives from five-year-old wood were mainly composed of tectoquinone (43.3%), phthalic acid (19.1%), and 1,3-indandione (9.2%), while those from 20-year-old wood were mainly composed of tectoquinone (60.7%), lapachol (13.8%), and phthalic acid (9.7%). Teakwood can be classified as resistant (5 years) to very resistant (20 years) after being submitted to an accelerated decay test. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]