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Background & objectives: Malaria is the most important mosquito-borne disease in Iran. It is endemic in southto southeastern part of the country. Knowledge about bio-ecology of vectors will support authorities for appropriatemanagement of the disease. Bashagard district is one of the main endemic areas for malaria in south of Iran.This study was conducted to determine anopheline fauna, diversity and affinity in the area, characterization oflarval habitats, and mapping their potential distribution across the district.Methods: The potential aquatic habitats for Anopheles larvae were extracted from Indian Remote Sensing Satellite(IRS) image and digital elevation model of the area using GIS. Surface water bodies were sampled monthlyduring 2009–10 for anopheline larvae, while characteristics of their physical environment were recorded andwater samples were analyzed.Results: A total of 4511 Anopheles larvae were found during the year with the lowest and highest frequencies inFebruary and April, respectively. Dominant species was Anopheles culicifacies. The Shanon diversity indexranged from 0.570–0.829 at fixed collection sites, while the affinity index was significant among some vectorspecies.Conclusion: Riversides and riverbeds were the main breeding places which provided sandy, rocky, and claybeds for different species. The potential breeding places as well as distribution of collected species were mapped.Knowledge about ecology of malaria vectors provides information to health sector for effective control programs.

Background: The cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) has been occurred in Dehbakri County, located 46 km of Bam Dis­trict, Kerman Province since 2004–2005. Phlebotomus papatasi is an important vector of zoonotic cutaneous leishmanisis (ZCL) as well as sand fly fever and P. sergenti is considered as main vector of anthroponotic cutaneous leishmaniasis (ACL) in Iran. There are several measures for vector control with emphasizing on insecticides. The objective of this study was to determine the baseline susceptibility of leishmaniasis vectors to the DDT and del­tamethrin in an endemic focus of CL in southern Iran. Methods: Baseline susceptibility tests were carried out on field collected strains of P. papatasi and P. sergenti and tested with WHO impregnated papers with DDT 4.0% and deltamethrin 0.05% in the focus of disease in Dehbakri County during summer 2010. The values of LT50 and LT90 were determined using probit analysis and regression lines. Results: The LT50 value of DDT 4.0% and deltamethrin 0.05% against P. papatasi was 20.6 and 13.6 minutes re­spectively. The same data for P. sergenti were ranged between 21.8 and 17.7 minutes. Conclusion: The results of tests will provide a guideline for implementation of vector control using pesticides such as impregnated bed nets, indoor residual spraying and fogging.

"nAbstract "nBackground: Regarding to the significant of the possibility of the malaria epidemic and nuisance of mosquitoes dur­ing the active season, the fauna and some ecological activities of mosquitoes in related to tree holes were investi­gated from April to December 2009 in Neka county of Mazandaran Province, northern Iran. "nMethods: Larval collection was carried out from natural, artificial breeding places, and tree holes inside the forest in Neka County, Mazandaran Province in 2009. In addition, human bait net trap collection was conducted using suction tube several times during this investigation. "nResults: Four genera and five species were found in tree holes. Anopheles plumbeus, Culiseta annulata, Culex pipiens, and Ochlerotatus geniculatus were collected by larval collection whereas, Ochlerotatus pulcritarsis was found by adult collection. Overall Cx. pipiens 44.6%, Oc. geniculatus 32.6%, An. plumbeus 22.5%, and Cs. annulata 0.3% were collected by larval collection. During the bait net collection five specie were identified including: Oc. genicula­tus 55.87%, Oc. echinus 1.33%, Oc. pulchritarsis 8.8 %, Cx. pipiens 33.8%, and An. plumbeus 0.2%. Cs. annu­lata larvae was detected for the first time with a low abundance in tree cavity. "nConclusion: Tree holes were found the main habitat for the species of Oc. geniculatus. The species of Cs. annulata was found in tree holes "n "nKeywords: Mosquito, fauna, tree holes, diversity, Iran

"n "nBackground: Ticks are the main vectors for transmission of different pathogens to human and animals. This survey was performed to find out distribution of ticks, which infested the domestic ruminants in Yazd Province, central Iran during year 2008-2009. "n "nMethods: A total number of 30 villages from both mountainous (20%) and plateau (80%) regions of the province were selected randomly. Ticks were colleted from the body of infested animals and transported to the laboratory of Medical Entomology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences and then were identified to space level using valid identification key. "nResults: A total of 583 hard ticks were collected. The ticks were classified into three genera and 7 species including: Hyalomma dromedarii (55.92%), Hy. marginatum (13.20%), Hy. anatolicum (9.78%), Hy. detritum (4.98%), Hy. asiaticum (3.94%), Rhipicephalus sanguineus (11.84%), and Dermacentor marginatus (0.34%). The highest seasonal activities occurred in summer. The prevalence of the Ixodidae ticks was more evident in plateaus area in Yazd Province. Among the hosts including: cow, goat, sheep and camel, the ticks that collected from camel was more prevalent. The ratio of male was more than female ticks. Hyalomma. dromedarii was the predominant tick species and accounted for 55.92% of the ticks. "n "nConclusion: Some of the collected ticks may play an important role for transmission of vector borne disease to human; therefore, the results of this study will provide a clue for vectors of tick-borne diseases in the region for local authorities for implementation of disease control.

Background: In order to verify the infectivity of rodents with endoparasites in Germi (Dashte-Mogan, Arda­bil Province) the current study was undertaken. Methods: Using live traps, 177 rodents were trapped during 2005-2007. In field laboratory, all rodents were bled prior to autopsy, frozen at -20°C, and shipped to the School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran. In parasitological laboratory, every rodent was dissected and its different or­gans were examined for the presence of any parasite. Blood thick and thin smears as well as impression smears of liver and spleen were stained with Geimsa and examined microscopically. Results: Two species of rodents were trapped; Meriones persicus (90.4%) and Microtus socialis (9.6%). The species of parasites found in M. persicus and their prevalences were as follows: Hymenolepis di­minuta (38.8%), Hymenolepis nana (2.5%), Trichuris sp.(40.6), Mesocestoides larva (=tetrathyridium) (3.1%), Capil­laria hepatica (6.9%), Moniliformis moniliformis (11.3%), Syphacia obvelata (2.5%), Taenia endotho­racicus larva (0.6%), Physaloptera sp. (0.6%), Dentostomella translucida (0.6%), Heligmosomum mix­tum (0.6%), Strobilocercus fasciolaris (0.6%),and Aspiculuris tetraptera (0.6%). The species of para­sites found in M. socialis and their prevalences were as follows: H. diminuta (17.6%), Trichuris sp. (5.9%), Mesocestoides larva (5.9%), S. obvelata (11.8%), S. syphacia (11.8%), H. mixtum (17.6%), and Aspiculuris tetraptera (11.8%). There were no statistical differences between male and female for infectivity with parasites in either M. persicus or M. socialis. No blood or tissue protozoan parasite was found in any of the rodents examined. Conclusion: Among different species identified, some had zoonotic importance. Therefore, the potential health hazard of these species needs to be considered to prevent infectivity of humans.

"nBackground: Dung beetles of Coleoptera associated to undisturbed cattle droppings in pastures present great diver¬sity and abundance. Dung beetles also play an important role for transmission of some helminthes to human and cat¬tle. This study was made to survey the biodiversity and abundance of these beetles in Ardebil Province, western Iran."nMethods: According to the field study all beetles attracted to fresh cow dung in five areas of Ardebil Province in¬cluding Namin, Ardabil, Meshkinshahr, Neer and Sarein were collected and identified. They were collected during summer 2007 from June to September, with general peaks appearing to be correlated with temperature mainly at 11 a.m to 15 p.m. The samples were identified using appropriate systematic key "nResults: A total of 231 specimens belonging to 9 beetle genera and at least 15 species were identified as Euoniticel¬lus fulvus, Sisyphus schaffaer, Euonthophagus taurus, Copris lunaris, Chironitis pamphilus, Gymnopleurus coriarus, Euonthophagus amyntas, Caccobius schreberi, Onthophagus speculifer, Onthophagus furcatus, Aphodius, lugens, Apho¬dius fimetarius, A. scrutator, Geotrupes spiniger and G. stercorarius"nThe most abundant and diverse subfamilies were Coprinae, Geotrupinae, and Aphodiinae. "nConclusion: We found 15 species of dung beetles occurred in the region. The prevalence of each species is varied depending on location. Some of them play an important role for helminths transmission of veterinary and public health importance. The finding will provide a clue for pasture management as well as public health monitoring and surveillance of the disease transmitted by dung beetles.&nbsp

Background: Personnel of military forces have close contact with natural habitat and usually encounter with bite of arthropods and prone to be infected with arthropod borne diseases. The imposed war against Iran was one of the most important and the longest war in the Middle East and even in the world and military people faced various diseases. The aim of this study was to review prevalence of arthropod borne diseases and to collect relevant information and valuable experiences during the imposed war. Methods: The present survey is a historical research and cross-sectional study, focused on arthropod fauna, situation of different arthropod borne diseases and also the ways which military personnel used to protect themselves against them. The information was adopted from valid military health files and also interviewing people who participated in the war. Results: Scabies, cutaneous leishmaniasis, sandfly fever and pediculosis were more prevalent among other arthropod -borne diseases in Iran-Iraq war. Measures to control arthropods and diseases at wartime mainly included: scheduled spraying of pesticides, leishmanization and treatment of patients. Conclusion: Although measures used during the war to control arthropods were proper, however, due to needs and importance of military forces to new equipment and technologies, it is recommended to use deltamethrin-impreg­nated bed net, permethrin treated military uniforms and various insect repellents in future.

Background & objectives: Most of autocidal control of malaria vectors relies on the rearing andrelease of large numbers of sterile male into a wild population and it would be crucial to separate themales from females before release. This could result in enormous economic benefits in the massrearing and raise the efficiency of the field operations. The development of genetic sexing ofmosquitoes, enabling the release of males only, but impairing the overall fitness of the releasedinsect has been considered greatly. Here we report on a morphological sexing method for thepreferential diagnosis and separation of males in late III and IV instar larvae for the mosquitoesAnopheles stephensi Liston and An. culicifacies s.l. (Diptera: Culicidae), the principal vectors ofhuman malaria in Asia and Indian subcontinent.Methods: Male mosquitoes are identified by their tube like organ at the 9th abdomen segment whichoriginates from segment parallel to the spiracles. Length and width of this organ is measured as66.66 ± 9.5 and 14.3 ± 1.5 μm respectively. The whole length of the organ is 201.63 ± 23.4 μm. Twofried eggs in the anterior portion of the segment are apparent in males. The length of tube in femaleis shorter than the male (almost half of the length–37.95 ± 4.0 μm), its width is slightly stout andwider than the male (16.72 ± 1.4 μm). Two fried eggs in the anterior portion of the segment areabsent. After separation of live male larvae by those characteristics, they were transferred into thetrays and emerged adults were identified to ascertain correct identification of sex.Results: All the larvae with male organs developed into male adults with hairy antennae and clubshaped palpi, whereas all the female larvae developed into adult females.Interpretation & conclusion: The sex separation at the larval stage will provide a clue for embryonicorigin of sex organs, insecticide selection at the larval stage, sex related genes, male sterility andother measures.

Tick-borne diseases such as relapsing fever and Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever (CCHF) are of public health impor¬tance in Iran. There are 471 reported cases of relapsing fever in 2003, according to the Ministry of Health of Iran.The num¬ber of cases has been increased in recent years. Its distribution is more or less prevalent in different parts of Iran. The aim of this study was to find out the fauna and natural infection of soft ticks with Borrelia in Qazvin Province, during their sea¬sonal activity. The province covers 15821 km² between 48-45 to 50-50 east of Greenwich Meridian of longitude and 35-37 to 36-45 north latitude of the equator. For this purpose a field study was carried out in the region. A total of 54 villages from 19 districts were selected ran¬domly and ticks were collected from their habitats according to the standard method. A total of 3197 Argasidae ticks were collected from human dwellings, poultry and animal shelters. They belonged to Argas and Or¬nithodoros genera which 36.8% were Argas persicus, 4% A. reflexus, 6.4% O. canestrini, 45.5% O. lahorensis and 7.3% O. tholozani. It should be noted that 12 ticks of O. erraticus were collected from 12 rodents borrows. We found that 8.82 % of O. tholozani ticks were infected with Borrelia persica and half of the O. erraticus were infected with Borrelia microti. All the people who are in¬volved with veterinary activities should be aware of disease transmission by the ticks. In the endemic area of the disease tick control is recommended.

Ecology of Anopheles dthali was studied in Bandar Abbas County, where there is indigenous malaria. Anopheles dthali plays as a secondary malaria vector in the region. It is active throughout the year in mountainous area with two peaks of activity, whereas in coastal area it has one peak. There is no report of hibernation or aestivation for this species in the re¬gion. Precipitin tests on specimens from different parts showed that 15.6-20.8% were positive for human blood. This species usually rests outdoors. It has different larval habitats. Insecticides susceptibility tests on adult females exhibited susceptibil¬ity to all insecticides recommended by WHO. LT50 for the currently used insecticide, lambda-cyhalothrin, is measured less than one minute. The irritability tests to pyrethroid insecticides, showed that permethrin and lambda-cyhalothrin had more irritancy compared to deltamethrin and cyfluthrin. Larval bioassay using malathion, chlorpyrifos, temephos and fenithrothion did not show any sing of resistance to these larvicides at the diagnostic dose. It is recommended that all the decision makers should consider the results of our study for any vector control measures in the region.

The members of Anopheles maculipennis subgroup (Diptera: Culicidae) are the most important vectors of malaria in the north, west, and central plateau of Iran. This study was carried out to differentiate the species composition of this subgroup based on morphometric variation seta 2-IV and V (antepalmate hair) among 149 larval specimens that were deposited at the Medical Arthropods Museum, the School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences by using the light micro¬scope. The mean numbers of larval seta 2-IV and V of the specimens belong to different locations of Iran, were calculated by SPSS (11.5) software package, followed by cluster analysis, and four different groups (clusters) were identified. The means were compared with the similar and available published data. After analyzing, four clusters recognized. The first cluster was fitted in ten localities in Esfahan, East Azarbaijan, West Azarbaijan, Khorassan, Kurdistan, and Mazandaran Provinces with its mean and standard deviation (SD) of 14.89±1.13 (n= 79); the second group with one location in Gilan Province (11±1.58, no= 5); the third one with two locations in Fars and Western Azarbaijan Provinces (27.43±0.31, n=20), and the final group with four locations in Khuzestan, West Azarbaijan, and Qazvin Provinces (36.84±1.91, n= 45) were identified and corresponded to Anopheles messeae, An. atroparvus, An. melanoon, and An. sacharovi respectively. This work provides comparative information on the Maculipennis Subgroup based on morphometric examination at the larval stage in Iran.

A case control study was performed in three districts in Hormozgan province in 2001 to assess how different determinants affect on malaria morbidity. It assume that results will help the decision makers in all levels of national development program. A total of 384 febrile patients with positive peripheral blood smear were selected as case group, and 753 people with negative peripheral blood smear as control group in three districts ( Minab , Jask , Roodan ) in Hormozgan province during second half of the year 2001. Appropriate questionnaire was designed and data entered twicely. Data were analyzed as matched and unmatched case – control using EPI6 and STATA softwares. Some determinants showed strong and significant relationship with malaria morbidity, including ; illiteracy (OR = 0.59), lack of health house and surrounding as a satellite village (OR = 2.83), far away from health facilities (OR = 1.43), not accessibility to school (OR = 1.75), road (OR = 2.3), screening and curtain (OR = 3.65), electricity accessibility (OR = 1.96), television (OR = 1.50), radio (OR = 1.73), telephone (OR = 2.71), and bed net (OR = 1.69). There was no significant relationship between malaria morbidity and the following determinant: residual spraying in the past 6 months (OR = 1.08). This study indicates that several factors affect on malaria control program. Malaria exists in low socio–economic and undeveloped conditions. Coordination of all sectors and close collaboration among them is a necessary component for malaria control program.

Two organochlorine, one organophosphate, two carbamate and two pyrethroid insecticides have been studied for their comparative study against fieldcollected An.pulcherrimus. The trail was conducted in Ghasreghand district, Sistan and Baluchistan province, Southeastern Iran using WHO impregnated papers at the diagnostic dose. Results revealed that this species exhibit resistant to 0.4% dieldrin (mortality 86 ± 2.07). Dose response regression line from interval exposure times to 0.4% dieldrin showed that LT50 and LT90 was 14 and 76 minutes, respectively. The efficacles of other insecticides such as 4% DDT, 5% malathion, 0.1% bendiocarb, 0.1% propoxur, 0.25% permethrin and 0.1% lambdacyhalothrin were maximum when mosquitoes exposed 1 hour at diagnostic dose followed by 24 hour recovery period.

Susceptibility levels of a lab strain of An. Stephensi to WHO standard papers of DDT 4%, dieldrin 0.4%, malathion 5%, permethrin 0.25%, lambdacyhalothrin 0.1%, cyfluthrin 0.1% and deltamethrin 0.025% were determined in our laboratory in 1999. Results showed that at the diagnostic dose of insecticides this species exhibited resistance to DDT and dieldrin with mortality rate of 54±2.5% and 30±2.5%, respectively. Malathion 5% caused 96±1% mortality. Permethrin killed 90±2% of the populations. Alpha-cyano groups of pyrethroids, e.g., deltamethrin, cyfluthrin and lambdacyhalothrin had highest efficacy, the mortality was 99.5±0.5, 100%, and 99±0.5% respectively. The results of irritability of this species to lambdacyhalothrin, permethrin cyfluthrin and deltamethrin revealed that lambdacyhalothrin had the most and deltamethrin the least irritancy effect. The average number of take offs/fly/minutes for lambdacyhalothrin and deltamethrin were 1.699±0.35 and 0.946±0.13%, respectively. For permethrin and cyfluthrin the equivalent values were 1.52±0.2 and 1.385±0.25, respectively.

Phlebotomine sandflies (Diptera: Psychodidae) play main role in the transmission of different forms of leishmaniasis in the world. Phlebotomus papatasi is the main vector of zoonotic cutaneous leishmaniasis (ZCL) in Iran. There are several control measures for vector control using different classes of insecticides. The aim of this study was to breed the sandflies which were collected from a hyperendemic focus of the disease in central Iran in the laboratory condition and to determine its baseline susceptibility to commonly used insecticides.Sandflies were collected from the field and were reared in insectary. Susceptibility tests were carried out on their generation. Baseline susceptibility of sandflies to DDT and pyrethroids was evaluated based on LT50 values. A total of 1305 specimens were tested using different time intervals. The LT50 and LT90 values were measured according to the WHO standard tests. The results were plotted using probit analysis and regression lines.The results against female sandflies revealed the LT50 values of 1312.66, 253.66, 36.04, 9.38 and 6 sec to DDT (4%), permethrin (0.75%), deltamethrin (0.1%), cyfluthrin (0.15%) and lambda-cyhalothrin (0.05%), respectively. The figures for male sandflies were 1200.97, 310.10, 18.63, 6.08 and 0.77 sec respectively to the above insecticides.The results of this study could help to provide a clue for implementation of currently used insecticides. Furthermore, a specific guideline is needed for monitoring and evaluation of insecticide susceptibility test against sandflies.

Due to low efficacy in the field of a local commercial product of Bacillus thuringiensis M-H-14 (Bioflash(®)), a study was designed to assess its efficacy in laboratory, glass standard aquarium, semi-field and field conditions at both target and higher dosages against immature stages of Anopheles spp. and Culex spp. In laboratory conditions, the LC50 values of wettable powder and granule formulations were 227 and 1031 ppm respectively against a susceptible strain of An. stephensi. Following application of wettable powder and granules at 56.1 mg/aquarium, the survival rates of the exposed larvae to the granule formulation were 65.6% and 54.2% on days 6 and 8 respectively. In the artificial ponds, the larval density was reduced to 38.9%, 39.3% and 65.1% at dosages of 2, 4 and 8 g/m(2) respectively. In rice fields, at a dosage of 2 kg/ha, the density of immature larvae were reduced to 33.1% and 28.6% 7-days post-treatment. Further investigations are needed for the reasons for the low efficacy of this larvicide.التقييم المختبري والميداني لمستحضرين من العُصَيَّة الثورنجية M-H-14 ضد يرقات البعوض في جمهورية إيران الإسلامية، 2012.زهرا قزلباش، حسن وطن دوست، محمد رضا عبائي، أحمد رئيسي، ياور راثي، أحمد علي حنفي بجد، حسين جباري، فاطمة نيكبورفي ضوء تضاؤل الكفاءة للمنتج التجاري المحلي المستحضر من العُصية الثورنجية صمم الباحثون دراسة لتقييم كفاءته في المختبر ضمن حوض مائي زجاجي معياري، وفي ظرف ميدانية وشبه ميدانية لكل من الجرعات المستهدفة والجرعات الأعلى ضد المراحل غير الناضجة من أنواع الأنوفيلات وأنواع الباعضات. وفي الظروف المختبرية، كانت قيم الجرعة القاتلة للنصف من مستحضرات المسحوق المرطَّب جزءاً بالمليون ومن الحبيبات جزءاً بالمليون، ضد الذراري المستجيبة من الأنوفيلة الأسطفانية. وبعد تطبيق المسحوق المرطّب والحبيبات على حوض مائي بمقدار 65.1 مغ/حوض وجد الباحثون أن معدل بقاء اليرقات على قيد الحياة بعد تعرضهن لمستحضر الحبيبات كان 65.6% في اليوم 6، و54.2% في اليوم 8. أما في الأحواض الاصطناعية فإن كثافة اليرقات انخفضت إلى 38.9% بجرعة 2 غرام/متر مربع، وإلى 39.3 بجرعة 4 ميلي غرام، وإلى 65% بجرعة 8 غرام/متر مربع. وفي حقول زراعة الأرز فقد أدت جرعة مقدارها 2 كيلو غرام/هيكتار إلى انخفاض كثافة اليرقات غير الناضجة إلى 33.1% و28.6% بعد مرور 7 أيام على المعالجة. وهناك حاجة لمزيد من الدراسات حول أسباب انخفاض كفاءة مبيدات اليرقات.Évaluation en laboratoire et sur le terrain de deux formulations de Bacillus thuringiensis M-H-14 contre les larves de moustiques en République islamique d’Iran, 2012.En raison de la faible efficacité sur le terrain d’un produit commercial local de Bacillus thuringiensis M-H-14 (Bioflash

Excretion of carbon dioxide and L-lactic acid through exhalation and perspiration provides olfactory signals to mosquitoes which allow them to find and bite humans; however, mosquito species differ in this regard. This study investigated upwind responses of Anopheles stephensi, mysorensis form, an important malaria vector in Asia, to carbon dioxide and L-lactic acid under laboratory conditions. While a minimal dose of carbon dioxide (90 ppm) activated the mosquitoes, 10 times this amount suppressed them. L-lactic acid alone did not produce a significant effect by itself, but addition of 6 microg/min of L-lactic acid to a range of 90 to 410 ppm carbon dioxide resulted in attraction. The results provide further support for the hypothesis that CO2 plays an important role in the host-seeking behaviour of zoophilic mosquitoes, and suggests that L-lactic acid might play a more critical role than CO2 in the attraction of An. stephensi.

A study was done of the bionomics, insecticide susceptibility and irritability status of Anopheles culicifacies in Sistan va Baluchestan province. Sampling was performed to determine the following parameters: species identification, seasonal activity, adult and larval susceptibility tests, irritability tests, anthropophily index and sporozoite rate. An. culicfacies adults were susceptible to all tested pyrethroid insecticides. An. culicfacies started to appear indoors in late May, showing 2 peaks in June and September. Fenitrothion, cyfluthrin and permethrin had the least irritancy effect and DDT the highest. Only 2/860 females tested were infected with Plasmodium spp. (sporozoite rate: 0.25%). ELISA testing of 250 blood meals derived from night-biting collections of female mosquitoes from humans and cows revealed that only 12.5% were human-fed.

Iran is in the malaria pre-elimination stage. In this situation community based strategies are important for malaria control. In order to intensify elimination activities we need to have a better understanding of the knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) of malaria prevention in the community. We carried out a KAP study in one malaria endemic district in southern Iran in 2009 using a structured questionnaire. Five villages with indigenous malaria cases during the previous year and a high potential for anopheline mosquito breeding were selected. All the households in each village were visited and the head of the household or other responsible adult was interviewed. Data were analyzed using SPSS 11.5. A total of 494 respondents from the five villages participated. More than 33% of people in the study area were living in sheds with poor facilities. The illiteracy level of the studied population was high (44.2%) and significantly affected the knowledge and practices of the respondents about malaria control (p0.05). Descriptive analysis showed significant differences between sex, job and history of malaria infection of the respondents and their knowledge and practices about malaria control (p0.05). Knowledge of the respondents about the route of transmission in malaria was good; 72.1% knew mosquitoes were the vector. Most people knew at least one symptom of the disease. The practices of respondents were 59.5% for bednet use and 9.3% for screening windows. The knowledge, attitudes and practices of respondents in this survey about malaria control were good in some cases, but in general needed to be improved with educational programs.

"n "nBackground: The aim of this study was that the past five years data were collected to analyze the situation of malaria and health facilities in this area for better understanding malaria problem and to find solutions. "n "nMethods: In this retrospective study data of the last 5 years were obtained from health center of Bandar Abbas, published papers and reports, weather forecasting organization of the city and annual reports of Hormozgan official authorities. An excel databank was created and analysis was conducted using this software. "n "nResults: According to the national health system, Bandar Abbas also has referral net work system from periphery to the district health center. The maximum and minimum Annual Parasitic Index (API) were observed in 2005 (1.31) and 2008 (0.17), respectively. The prevalence of cases in villages was more than city, except for 2008. More than 97.6% of indigenous malaria cases were caused by Plasmodium vivax, although P. falciparum, P. ovale and mix infection were also reported. Anopheles stephensi, An. dthali and An. fluviatilis are the main malaria vectors in rural area, while only the first species is distributed in the urban area. "n "nConclusion: According to results and many variables including API, Bandar Abbas is divided in two strata. From the situation analysis of Bandar Abbas it is postulated that the main activities of this district could be accuracy of data, and malaria vector control.

Background: A molecular survey was conducted to investigate the presence of pathogenic Borrelia persica species causing the tick borne relapsing fever (TBRF) in Takistan district Qazvin Province, western Iran. Methods: A number of 1021 soft ticks were collected from 31 villages including previously reported infected and none-infected TBRF cases and individually examined for the presence of B. persica DNA by conventional PCR targeting the 16S rRNA. Results: A total of 1021 soft ticks of three species of Ornithodouros tholozani (120: 11.75%), O. lahorensis (461: 45.15%) and Argas persicus (440: 43.1%) were collected and tested against Borrelia infection. Soft ticks were more prevalent (67%) in infected areas than none infected areas. The rate O. tholozani in infected areas was much greater (29 times) than none infected areas. Ninety seven percent of soft ticks in none infected areas were of O. tholozani. Sixteen (16.7%) ticks of tested (n=95) O. tholozani were infected with B. persica. Three (1.3%) out of 205 soft ticks of O. lahorensis were positive for Borrelia sp., and no infection was observed in A. persicus. TaqI RFLP analysis and sequence analysis of the positive PCR products showed the presence of B. persica. The RFLP analysis showed that the positive ticks of O. lahorensis were infected with unknown Borrelia species. Conclusion: This study showed that although there were no TBRF cases in Takisan, but still infected O. tholozani, the known vector of TBRF, presented in the region. Control measures needs to be fulfilled in Thakisan.

Background: Biting habit of mosquitoes plays an important role in the epidemiology of mosquito-borne diseases. Mosquitoes use a set of elaborate sensory modalities to find their preferred hosts by exploiting cues emanating from a nearby host. It has been suggested that the chemical profile of skin can provide further support for anthropophilic mosquito species to find their suitable hosts. This study aimed at revealing the value of skin emanation for a zoophilic species like Anopheles stephensi as a model. Methods: Skin emanations of a man, a cow and a Guinea pig were collected by ethanol soaked cottons. Upwind responses of mosquitoes to 100 and 200 μl of filtered skin materials were non-competitively explored in a dual-choice olfactometer. L-lactic acid and other chemical content of the skin samples were identified by an enzymatic kit and GC-MS, respectively. Results: Unexpectedly, only human skin emanation was resulted in the statistically significant activation and attraction responses of An. stephensi in the wind tunnel. L-lactic acid content of this skin sample was 10 and 29 times more than the cow and the Guinea pig, respectively. The possible role of lactic acid and a few other identified compounds have been discussed here. Conclusion: Anopheles stephensi showed higher and more specific upwind responses to human skin emanation in the olfactometer. Undoubtedly, the thorough explanation of this unexpected finding needs further investigation. But, if new data verify this result, then, it may be necessary to reconsider the role of skin emanation and thence the human blood index and vectorial capacity of this zoophilic mosquito.

Temperature plays a significant role in insect's development where a rise in temperature, accelerates the insect's metabolic rates, increases egg production and makes blood feeding more frequent. It also shortens the time period required for the development of pathogens within insects. Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is one of the most important vector-borne diseases transmitted by different sandfly species. In this study, a phenological model was used to estimate the number of generations, peak activity and temporal variability of sandflies in the main VL foci in northwest Iran.Development requirements of different life stages of a Phlebotomus papatasi laboratory colony were measured and were subjected to the formula for calculation of accumulated degree day (ADD) for field sandflies using the online soft (UC IPM), using horizontal cut-off method and single triangle model. Sandflies population dynamics was monitored in the field during the seasonal activity in the region and its association with the ADD was tested using SAS software.Populations of sandflies accommodated well with the amount of accumulated degree days (ADD) in the region. During the seasonal activity, a total of 639 ADD were produced which was enough to support one complete life cycle and growth of the next generation up to late larval instar. Larvae of the second generation hibernate through winter and the first adult population appears in the mid to late June of the next year when they receive at least 182 ADD from the beginning of the spring. The highest population density of sandflies was observed in early August, followed by a rapid decrease in early September, with the adult population disappearing completely in late September. This is the first degree day model related to sandflies in the most important VL foci of Iran.Further studies in various regions with variable climate are recommended in order to better estimate and understand the development time, population dynamics and activities of the vectors which in turn could be used in proper implementation of effective vector control programmes.

Background: Rodents play important role as host of ectoparasites and reservoir of different zoonotic diseases. The aim of this study was to asses the infestation of commensal rodents with ectoparasites in Bandar Abbas, a port city lo­cated in the northern part of the Persian Gulf in Iran."nMethods: Rodents were captured using live traps during the study period in year 2007. After transferring the rodents to the laboratory, they were identified and then their ectoparasites were collected and mounted for species identifica­tion using appropriate systematic keys."nResults: A total of 77 rodents were identified including Rattus norvegicus (74%), R. rattus (16.9%), Mus musculus (7.8%) and one hamster. Among all rodents, 40.3% were found infested with ectoparasites. A total of 69 ectopara­sites were collected comprising flea, lice, mite and tick. Two species of fleas; Xenopsylla cheopis and X. astia were identi­fied with higher index of X. astia. Two genera of ticks including Hyalomma sp. and Rhipicephalus sp. were identi­fied. Laelaps nuttalli was the only mite found. The Polyplax spinulosa was considered as lice ectoparasite."nConclusion: Among all arthropods collected, flea and lice had the most and the least frequency, respectively. Nearly all rodent species were infested with Xenopsylla. These fleas are important due to their role in plague and murine ty­phus transmission. Ticks are important due to their role in CCHF (Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever), theileriosis, babe­siosis, anaplasmosis and ehrlichiosis transmission .Monitoring of ectoparaiste infestation is important for prepared­ness and early warning preparation for possible control of arthropod-borne diseases. Keywords: Rodents, Ectoparasite, Iran

Background The control of leishmaniasis, a tropical neglected disease, has been concern of Iranian health authorities due to the increasing number of cases during the last two decades. The objective of this study was to determine deltamethrine residue on the impregnated bed nets using HPTLC technique in a leishmaniasis control program in Iran. Methods: During this experimental study, a total of 130 small pieces of polyester netting were sewn to top, upper, and lower sides of some bed nets and then were impregnated with deltamethrin. The treated bed nets were distributed in Isfahan and Mashhad areas in April 2003. The samples were cut randomly after impregnation intervals. Deltamethrin was extracted using acetone from samples and the extract was applied for spotting onto plates. The plates were developed with n-hexane: ethyl acetate, 90+10(v/v), as a mobile phase in a Camage chamber. The qualifying of residue was observed in UV cabinet with λ=254 nm wavelength. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 11.5. and Stata Version 8. A three way ANOVA was used to compare the means of deltamethrin residue in each area, group and measuring time. The Kruskal-Wallis test was used to compare the means of residue for each of these factors with the control separately. Results: The retardation factor of deltamethrin was calculated 0.50±0.02. The residues of deltamethrin persisted well on impregnated nets at least for 15 weeks after impregnation. No significant difference could be detected in the loss of residue of insecticide in comparison to measuring times and positions of sampling pieces on the bed nets in these areas. Conclusion: Based on the results of the present study the use of HPTLC technique is recommended instead of other chromatographic methods for analysis of insecticide residue on the impregnated bed nets.

Background We aimed to evaluate different fibres of bednets impregnated with various pyrethroids. The stability of insecticide on the bednet was measured using different methods of washings as well as local made detergents. Methods: The entire test was carried out according to the WHO-recommended methods. In addition, the impact of the numbers of washes on the stability of the insecticides was determined. Permethrin 10% (EC), deltamethrin 10% (SC), lambdacyhalothrin 2.5% (CS) and cyfluthrin 5% (EW) were used at the recommended dosages. Three different local detergents were used. Two kinds of washing methods (shaking, no shaking) were used and in each method four kinds of washings, i.e. no wash, one wash, two washes and three washes was done. The main malaria vectors, Anopheles stephensi, which is susceptible to all insecticides (BEECH strain), was tested with impregnated bednets in 3 minutes exposure time and the mortality was measured after 24 hours recovery period. Knock-down was measured as well using appropriate statistical methods. Results: Lambdacyhalothrin has saved its insecticidal impact after being washed, whereas, deltamethrin has lost its activity faster than other insecticides. Tow other insecticides had moderate effect. Golnar soap detergent has least effect on the durability of insecticides, but the Shoma had the most. Whit increasing the times of washing, insecticidal effects was decreased, but shaking had no influence on the decreasing of the quality of insecticidal impact. Conclusion: Results will be useful for local people who wish to use pyrethroid-impregnated bednets with their own local made detergent and bednets.

Background: We aimed to evaluate different fibres of bednets impregnated with various pyrethroids. The stability of insecticide on the bednet was measured using different methods of washings as well as local made detergents."nMethods: The entire test was carried out according to the WHO-recommended methods. In addition, the impact of the numbers of washes on the stability of the insecticides was determined. Permethrin 10% (EC), deltamethrin 10% (SC), lambdacyhalothrin 2.5% (CS) and cyfluthrin 5% (EW) were used at the recommended dosages. Three different lo­cal detergents were used. Two kinds of washing methods (shaking, no shaking) were used and in each method four kinds of washings, i.e. no wash, one wash, two washes and three washes was done. The main malaria vectors, Anophe­les stephensi, which is susceptible to all insecticides (BEECH strain), was tested with impregnated bednets in 3 minutes exposure time and the mortality was measured after 24 hours recovery period. Knock-down was measured as well using appropriate statistical methods."nResults: Lambdacyhalothrin has saved its insecticidal impact after being washed, whereas, deltamethrin has lost its activ­ity faster than other insecticides. Tow other insecticides had moderate effect. Golnar soap detergent has least ef­fect on the durability of insecticides, but the Shoma had the most. Whit increasing the times of washing, insecticidal ef­fects was decreased , but shaking had no influence on the decreasing of the quality of insecticidal impact."nConclusion: Results will be useful for local people who wish to use pyrethroid-impregnated bednets with their own lo­cal made detergent and bednets.&nbsp

Jiroft district has subtropical climate and prone to seasonal malaria transmission with annual parasite index (API) 4.2 per 1000 in 2006. Anopheles stephensi Liston is a dominant malaria vector. The monitoring of insecticide susceptibility and irritability was conducted using discriminative dose as described by WHO.The IV instar larvae were collected from different larval breeding places and transported to the temporary insectary, fed with Bemax and then 2-3 days-old emerged and sugar-fed adults were used for susceptibility and irritability tests employing WHO methods and kits to organochlorine (OC) and pyrethroid (PY) insecticides.Mortality rates of field strain of An. stephensi were 91.3 +/- 0.14 and 90 +/- 0.47% to DDT and dieldrin, respectively at one hour exposure time but was susceptible to all pyrethroids tested. The average number of take-offs per min per adult was 2.09 +/- 0.13 for DDT, 0.581 +/- 0.05 for dieldrin, 1.85 +/- 0.08 for permethrin, 1.87 +/- 0.21 for lambda-cyhalothrin, 1.53 +/- 0.13 for cyfluthrin, and 1.23 +/- 0.1 for deltamethrin.Currently, deltamethrin is being used for indoor residual spraying against malaria vectors in the endemic areas of Iran. The findings revealed that the main malaria species is susceptible to all pyrethroids including deltamethrin, permethrin, cyfluthrin and lambda-cyhalothrin but was tolerant to DDT and dieldrin. This report and the finding are coincided with results of previous studies carried out during 1957-61 in the same area. Irritability tests to OC and PY insecticides revealed the moderate level of irritability to DDT compared to pyrethroids and dieldrin. Monitoring for possible cross-resistance between OC and PY insecticides should come into consideration for malaria control programme.