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Birds’ activities may cause short-circuit damages of transmission line (TL), especially in the areas without tall trees and other vegetation. ± 400 kV Qaidam-Lhasa DC TL with an average altitude of about 4650 m in China is the highest DC TL in the world. Since November 2011 to the end of January 2017, there have been a total of 102 short-circuit damages, including 95 damages caused by birds. The damages were mainly caused by the defecation of birds. This paper analyzes the characteristics and causes of flashover damages of the Project. Moreover, A survey of birds along the TL was carried out by using line transect method and point count method, and then the comprehensive improvement measures for such bird-related outages were put forward. The results show that a total of 26 species of birds are involved in the damages, mainly including large or clustered birds such as Gyps himalayensis, Aegypius monachus, Buteo hemilasius, Buteo buteo and Corvus corax. The damages often occur at night in winter and spring. The prevention measures shall be dominated by guiding type and supplemented by isolation type and expulsion type, and focus on the treatment of tension tower. Through improvement, the outages have been greatly reduced from 2018 to now.

Background Himalayan Griffons (Gyps himalayensis), large scavenging raptors widely distributed in Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, have evolved a remarkable ability to feed on carcasses without suffering any adverse effects. The gut microbiome plays an important role in animal physiological and pathological processes, and has also been found to play a health protective role in the vulture adaptation to scavenging. However, the microbial taxonomic diversity (including nonculturable and culturable microbes), functions, and metabolites related to Himalayan Griffons have not been fully explored. Methods In the present study, the 28 fecal samples of the Himalayan Griffons and 8 carrion samples were collected and sequenced using high-throughput 16S rRNA gene sequencing methods to analyze the composition and functional structures of the microbiomes. Twelve fecal samples of the Himalayan Griffons were analyzed using untargeted Liquid Chromatography Mass Spectroscopy (LC–MS) to identify metabolites. We used different culture conditions to grow Himalayan Griffons gut microbes. Inhibitory effects of gut beneficial bacteria on 5 common pathogenic bacteria were also tested using the Oxford cup method. Results According to the results of the culture-independent method, a high abundance of four major phyla in Himalayan Griffons were identified, including Fusobacteria, Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, and Proteobacteria. The most abundant genera were Fusobacterium, followed by Clostridium_sensu_stricto_1, Cetobacterium, Epulopiscium, and Bacteroides. The predicted primary functional categories of the Himalayan Griffons’ gut microbiome were associated with carbohydrate and amino acid metabolism, replication and repair, and membrane transport. LC–MS metabolomic analysis showed a total of 154 metabolites in all the fecal samples. Cultivation yielded 184 bacterial isolates with Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecium, Enterococcus hirae, and Paeniclostridium sordellii as most common isolates. Moreover, 7 potential beneficial gut bacteria isolated showed certain inhibition to 5 common pathogenic bacteria. Conclusions Our findings broaden and deepen the understanding of Himalayan Griffons’ gut microbiome, and highlighted the importance of gut microbiome-mediated adaptation to scavenging habits. In particular, our results highlighted the protective role of gut beneficial bacteria in the Himalayan Griffons against pathogenic bacteria that appear in rotten food resources.

Raptors are high in trophic level and play an essential role in the functioning of an ecosystem, yet not much information about their distribution and abundance is available from the Indian Himalayan region. The present study was conducted in the Indian part of the Kailash sacred landscape, Western Himalayas, between February 2015–December 2017, documenting the distribution and abundance status of raptors in the landscape. Altogether, 320 km of trails were walked, and 1162 km of the vehicular survey were conducted through different habitats. A total of 506 individuals of 25 species belonging to three families were recorded. Nine Globally Threatened/Near Threatened species and eight migrant species were observed from the landscape. Himalayan vulture Gyps himalayensis was the most abundant and widely distributed raptor, followed by Black-eared kite Milvus migrans lineatus and Steppe eagle Aquila nipalensis. The population of raptors is declining worldwide, and in the Kailash landscape, this lesser-known group should be monitored regularly and protected by ensuring the availability of suitable and undisturbed habitat, control on forest fire, and uncontaminated food.

Long-term conservation of the species requires the availability of their natural habitat along with all those factors that support their viability. Understanding the breeding success of vulture and different factors affecting it is important to line up species conservation, although very less is known about the reproductive and behavioral ecology of Himalayan griffon (Gyps himalayensis). Therefore, the present study was carried out in Upper Mustang areas of Nepal, a prime habitat for the species. For the determination of the factors influencing breeding success, exploratory research design was used. Identification of vulture’s nests was done by direct observation. Altogether 78 nests were identified with 41.02% breeding success with occupied nest as the primary unit. Almost all the productive nests were found in steep cliffs facing north direction. Nesting sites were located near water sources. Grazing and noise respectively have positive and negative impacts on the breeding success. Developmental activities like road construction, distribution of power lines is proven threat to vulture as per locals' perception and require development activities to be carried out with proper planning.

Presence of the Critically Endangered Gyps vulture populations in northern Shan State, Myanmar. On 27 November 2018, we observed a flock of G. bengalensis, G. tenuirostris, and G. himalayanensis in Man Sant Village, Mong Yai Township, Northern Shan State, Myanmar. The most notable feature of our observation was the presence of G. bengalensis and G. tenuirostris: we could observe as many as 38 vultures of three species.

This is the first study to describe the mitochondrial genome of the Himalayan Griffon, Gyps himalayensis, which is an Old World vulture belonging to the family Accipitridae and occurring along the Himalayas and the adjoining Tibetan Plateau. Its mitogenome is a closed circular molecule 17,381 bp in size containing 13 protein-coding genes, 22 tRNA coding genes, two rRNA-coding genes, a control region (CR), and an extra pseudo-control region (CCR) that are conserved in most Accipitridae mitogenomes. The overall base composition of the G. himalayensis mitogenome is 24.55% A, 29.49% T, 31.59% C, and 14.37% G, which is typical for bird mitochondrial genomes. The alignment of the Accipitridae species control regions showed high levels of genetic variation and abundant AT content. At the 5 ' end of the domain I region, a long continuous poly-C sequence was found. Two tandem repeats were found in the pseudo-control regions. Phylogenetic analysis with Bayesian inference and maximum likelihood based on 13 protein-coding genes indicated that the relationships at the family level were (Falconidae + (Cathartidae + (Sagittariidae + (Accipitridae + Pandionidae))). In the Accipitridae clade, G. himalayensis is more closely related to Aegypius monachus than to Spilornis cheela. The complete mitogenome of G. himalayensis provides a potentially useful resource for further exploration of the taxonomic status and phylogenetic history of Gyps species.

Upland buzzard (Buteo hemilasius), Saker falcon (Falco cherrug), and Himalayan vulture (Gyps himalayensis) are three common large raptors in the Sanjiangyuan National Park (SNP), China's first national park. Among them, Upland buzzard and Saker falcon play a significant role in controlling plateau rodent populations and reducing the transmission of pathogens carried by rodents. The Himalayan vulture can provide services for the redistribution and recycling of nutrients in the ecosystem, and play an irreplaceable role in the celestial burial culture of Tibetans in China. Exploring their habitat suitability is important for the protection of the three raptors. Our research was based on the current distribution of Upland buzzard, Saker falcon, and Himalayan vulture that we had extensively surveyed in the Sanjiangyuan National Park from 2016 to 2017. Combined with the correlation analysis of environmental variables, we utilized maximum entropy model (MaxEnt) to evaluate and compare the habitat suitability of the three species in the Sanjiangyuan National Park. Elevation, climate, and human disturbance factors, which had direct or indirect effects on species survival and reproduction, were all included in the model. Among them, elevation was the most important environmental variables affecting the suitability of habitats of three species. Temperature‐related factor was another important predictor. The high (>60%) suitable habitat areas for Upland buzzard, Saker falcon, and Himalayan vulture were 73,017.63, 40,732.78, and 61,654.33 km2, respectively, accounted for 59.32%, 33.09%, and 50.08% of the Sanjiangyuan National Park and their total suitable area (i.e., the sum area of high and moderate habitats) reached 96.07%, 60.59%, and 93.70%, respectively. Besides, the three species have overlapping areas for the suitable habitats, which means that overlapping areas should be highly valued and protected. Therefore, understanding the distribution of suitable habitats of the three raptors can provide useful information and reasonable reference for us to put forward suggestions for their protection and regional management.

A free-ranging juvenile Himalayan Griffon Vulture from the Haldwani forest range division, Nainital, Uttarakhand, on detailed inspection, showed dullness, weakness, emaciation, ruffled feathers, droopy head, and watery whitish diarrhoea. It was unable to bear its own weight on both the legs. The bird died later and the post mortem revealed haemorrhagic intestinal tract. Based on the findings and microscopical examination it was confirmed as intestinal coccidiosis.

Nature in Singapore, 14, 1-3

The Himalayan Griffon (Gyps himalayensis), is a globally near threatened vulture species that nests in the cliffs of mid hills and Himalayas of Nepal. We studied the Himnalayan Griffon breeding population and productivity on its prominent nesting sites at Khodpe in Baitatdi district, Nepal from 2010 to 2020. In 2012, this district was declared free of veterinary diclofenac—a drug that caused precipitous population declines in Gyps vultures across south Asia during the late 1990s and early 2000s. We therefore expected an increase in the number of occupied nests during our study. However, the growth rates for the number of occupied nests, fledglings, and young fledged per nest during our study were negative with confidence limits overlapping zero. It is possible the population is limited by the availability of nest sites, although we also cannot discount carcass poisoning, electrocution, persecution, and forest fire as limiting factors. This colony is one of the few remaining known breeding sites within the Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal. We therefore recommend continued and enhanced monitoring of this species as well as continuation of conservation efforts.

The cause for rapid decline of the South Asian vulture population in 1990s was unknown for many years until diclofenac was proved to be the main reason for such decline in 2004. The vulture populations from Nepal has also undergone rapid decline that causes low awareness among people about its ecological importance. For declining species that have large range and are mostly associated with humans, people’s attitudes can have direct effects on their survival because of the multiple linkages and potential for both positive and negative impacts of human behaviour for these large scavengers. However, little is known about vultures in the eastern mid-hills of Nepal. Therefore, we conducted a study in Ramechhap, a district in the eastern mid-hills of Nepal, to assess the vultures’ status and human relations using transect and questionnaire surveys respectively. Himalayan Griffons Gyps himalayensis and Egyptian Vultures Neophron percnopterus were found in the area, and the majority of respondents interviewed had a positive attitude towards vultures (58.8%) and their conservation (47.3%). Although neglected in previous studies, a neutral attitude (20% towards vultures and 15.8% towards vulture conservation) can be significant (largely related to ignorance) and can be readily turned to negative due to the vulture’s carcass consuming behaviour and lack of conventional appeal to many people, with implications for the success of a conservation programme. In our study, carcass scarcity appeared to be an increasing concern with about 90% of the respondents reporting burying cattle carcasses, and that this practice has recently increased. In the course of the study period, however, two (unburied) carcasses were observed. Our study found that nimesulide, a potentially toxic NSAID for vultures, was used for veterinary purpose in the study area, which could be a serious threat to vultures. Other human activities such as carcass poisoning pose threats to vultures in the study area. Therefore, for long term vulture conservation, local attitudes and behaviour should be considered along with ecological aspects of vultures.

The non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) diclofenac, known to cause hyperuricemia and concomitant visceral gout in Gyps vultures is suggested to be a result of interference with renal uric acid excretion. Three species of Gyps vultures are on the verge of extinction due to nephrotoxic veterinary diclofenac having entered the food chain, notwithstanding the fact that the toxicity of different avian species to the NSAIDs like diclofenac varies. The multidrug resistance protein 4 (MRP4), an organic anion transporter in birds has unique role in unidirectional efflux of urate into proximal renal tubular lumen for excretion and maintenance of homeostasis. We characterized MRP4 channel at molecular level to predict its structural based ligand binding activity in Gallus domesticus (Indian domestic chicken) and Gyps himalayensis (Himalayan griffon vulture). MRP4 gene was amplified using reverse transcribed cDNA from renal tissue sample in overlapping fragments. The obtained amplicons were cloned, sequenced, assembled and analyzed. Multiple alignment and blast analysis revealed point variations and presence of additional stretch of 57 bp towards the 3′ end which was confirmed in Real time PCR. Predicted MRP4 polypeptides revealed presence of characteristic 12 transmembrane helices (TMH) with two nucleotide binding domains (NBD). Additional 19 amino acids in transcript variant was found to be localized in NBD2 that might influence the transporter function. The homology modeling and pocket identification throws ample light on varying transport efficacy and paves the way for depicting its role of these amino acids in effect of diclofenac on urate transport in further studies.

SummaryThe Upper Mustang region of Nepal holds important breeding populations of Himalayan Griffon Gyps himalayensis. Despite this species being considered ‘Least Concern’ on the IUCN Red List, the population in Upper Mustang had declined substantially in the early to mid-2000s. During that period, the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac was commonly used to treat illness and injury in domesticated ungulates throughout Nepal. The timing and magnitude of declines in Himalayan Griffon in Upper Mustang resemble the declines in resident populations of the ‘Critically Endangered’ White-rumped Vulture Gyps bengalensis and Slender-billed Vulture Gyps tenuirostris in Nepal, both of which are also known to be highly sensitive to diclofenac. Since 2006, the veterinary use of diclofenac has been banned in Nepal to prevent further vulture declines. In this paper, we analyse the population trend in Himalayan Griffon in Upper Mustang between 2002 and 2014 and show a partial recovery. We conclude that the decline is now occurring at a slower rate than previously observed and immigration from areas where diclofenac was either not or rarely used the probable explanation for the recovery observed.

As carrion feeders vultures play an important ecological role. Counts and qualitative assessments were done over three seasons to assess the richness and abundance of vultures in Uttar Pradesh during 2010–11. Of nine species found in India, Uttar Pradesh has six: Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus (45.9%), Slender-billed Vulture Gyps tenuirostris (25.4%), Indian Vulture (Long-billed Vulture) Gyps indicus (16.8%), White-rumped Vulture Gyps bengalensis (10.3%), Red-headed Vulture (King Vulture) Sarcogyps calvus (0.8%) and Himalayan Griffon Gyps himalayensis (0.7%). We observed a total of 1993 adults and 91 juveniles, with the Tarai region having the greatest species richness and abundance. Nesting tree species included Silk Cotton Bombax ceiba, Teak Tectona grandis, Haldu Haldina cordifolia and Sissoo Dalbergia sissoo. A qualitative assessment indicated that the vulture population had declined in the past 10–15 years, with the main causes being the use of diclofenac, shortage of food and habitat loss. Disposal of dead animals was mainly done by removing carcasses to village outskirts, where dogs, crows and egrets compete with vultures. Such a small number of avian scavengers in a large area like Uttar Pradesh should be protected by ensuring safe and sufficient food, recovery from accidents and rehabilitation, and a protected environment.

We studied the breeding biology of Himalayan Griffon ( Gyps himalayensis ) in the central Tien Shan Mountains over two years (2012/2013). Line transect surveys were used to locate breeding sites. Breeding behavior was monitored from vantage points and nest site information obtained during nest visits and from video camera footage. Nest and nest-site characteristics, breeding stage and measurements of eggs and chicks were recorded during nest visits. Our survey estimated between 89 and 122 nests located within 14 colonies at 7 localities. Himalayan Griffon preferred nesting on the south-facing slopes (78.6%). Nests were in rock cavities, small caves or on ledges. Nest material comprised principally of fine reed stalks such as Poa spp. and Stipa spp. The maximum lateral extent of a single colony was 7.3 km, and the two nearest colonies were 47 km apart. Breeding season length was between six and nine months extending from January to September. The duration of the chick-rearing period was particularly prolonged compared to that of other Gyps vultures. The potential reasons for this are discussed and future research recommended.

Two strains of Gram-stain-positive, facultatively anaerobic, non-spore-forming short rods (VUL7T and VUL8) were isolated from rectal swabs of Old World vultures, namely Gyps himalayensis, in Tibet-Qinghai Plateau, China. Optimal growth occurred at 37 °C, pH 6–7, with 1 % (w/v) NaCl. Phylogenetic analysis based on 16S rRNA gene sequences classified the two strains to the genus Actinomyces , with highest 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity (95 %) to type strains of Actinomyces haliotis , Actinomyces radicidentis and Actinomyces urogenitalis . The major cellular fatty acids were C18 : 1ω9c and C16 : 0. MK-10(H4) was the major respiratory quinone. The genomic DNA G+C content of the isolate was 54.4 mol%. DNA–DNA hybridization values with the most closely related species of the genus Actinomyces was 24.6 %. The two strains can be differentiated from the most closely related species such as A. haliotis , A. radicidentis, A. graevenitzii and A. urogenitalis by a list of carbohydrate fermentations and enzyme activities. On the basis of physiological, biochemical and phylogenetic analysis, strains VUL7T and VUL8 represent novel species of the genus Actinomyces , for which the name Actinomyces vulturis sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is VUL7T (=CGMCC 4.7366T=DSM 103437T).

Bio-logging, the on-animal deployment of miniaturised electronic data recorders, allows for the study of location, body position, and physiology of individuals throughout their ontogeny. For terrestrial animals, 1 Hz GPS-position, 3D-body acceleration, and ambient temperature provide standard data to link to the physiology of life histories. Environmental context is added at ever finer scales using remote sensing earth observation data. Here we showcase the use of such bio-logging approaches in a conservation physiology study on endangered Himalayan vultures (Gyps himalayensis). We determine environmental, behavioural, and physiological causes of survival in immature birds that roam from wintering sites in India, Bhutan, and Nepal towards summer areas in Tibet and Mongolia. Five of 18 immature griffons died during one year. Individuals that died had failed to migrate sufficiently far northward (>1500 km) in spring. Individuals likely died if they flew against headwinds from the north or were less able to find thermal updrafts. Surviving individuals migrated to cold and dry areas with low population density. We highlight flight experience, long distance movements, and remote places with low human population as factors critical for the survival of Himalayan vultures. High-resolution bio-logging studies can advance conservation management by pinpointing where and why migratory animals have problems and die. published

Nine species of vulture were reported in India. Out of them, four species Gyps indicus, Gyps bengalensis, Sacrogyps calvus and Neophron percnopterus are permanent residents and remain in and around Jodhpur. The remaining three species Gyps fulvus, Gyps himalayensis and Aegypus monachus are migratory species and come to site from October to February in winter season. Resident species reproduce here due to availability of food through out the year. Egyptian vulture is a smaller bird with naked head and without long scrawny neck and is permanent resident of Thar Desert. It is has maximum population as compared to other species of vultures observed in the area investigated in the present study. Key words: Breeding, migratory, population, resident, vulture, Thar Desert.

Vultures are crucial components of ecosystems as they perform important ecological and aesthetic functions. They provide sanitation services by feeding on carcasses, which would otherwise decay and possibly become a source of disease affecting the health of other animals. In the last few decades, populations have declined drastically, mainly due to the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac used in India, Pakistan, and Nepal. In the current study, we investigated the abundance of vultures inhabiting Pir Lasura National Park in Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan, from September 2015 to August 2016. We recorded three vulture species, including near-threatened Himalayan Griffons (Gyps himalayensis), endangered Egyptian Vultures (Neophron percnopterus) and critically endangered White-rumped Vultures (Gyps bengalensis), distributed across elevations ranging from 560–1530 masl. The Himalayan Griffons were the most common in the surveyed region (n = 128 individuals), followed by White-rumped Vultures (n = 48 individuals), and Egyptian Vultures (n = 41 individuals). Mean numbers of birds at roosts ranged from 7–20 for Himalayan Griffons, 14–26 for Egyptian Vultures, and 15–23 for White-rumped Vultures. We also identified a previously unknown roost of White-rumped Vultures that could be a potentially important area of conservation focus given the decline of this species in Pakistan. Due to declining populations in other parts of the world, the vulture populations we studied should be regularly monitored as a partial assessment of their conservation needs.

We report two observations of Himalayan Vulture Gyps himalayensis from central Uzbekistan. The first of these observations was a juvenile bird seen on March 17th 2015 over semi-desert steppe habitat in the southern Kyzylkum desert, central Navoi province. The second observation was an adult bird seen on September 24th 2017 in the Aktau ridge of the Nuratau mountain range, far-western Samarkand province, at an altitude of 1400 m. Both these observations were made in areas where Himalayan Vulture is not indicated to occur by existing range maps. While it is uncertain whether our observations indicate the presence of a permanent population of Himalayan Vulture in the mountains of central Uzbekistan, or whether the individuals we recorded represent birds which have widely dispersed from their breeding grounds, we nevertheless highlight that this near-threatened species occurs more extensively within Uzbekistan than previously reported.

The Himalayan Griffon (Gyps himalayensis), occurring mainly in the Tibetan Plateau, is one of the scavengers of Old World vultures. As of now, knowledge about the Himalayan Griffon in China remains scarce. Estimates of its number, habitat, and conservation status were carried out in 2003, 2009 and 2102 in the Lhasa River Valley, where we paid particular attention to the population living at the Drigung Thel Monastery, Mzizhokunggar County. The resident species occupies alpine meadows in the daytime and roosts at the upper parts of cliffs at night between 4400–5000 m elevation. The number of individual birds of the Himalayan Griffon around the monastery was estimated as 230 in 2003, 250 in 2009 and 200 in 2012. This population is considered relatively stable, thanks to the current conservation measures by Buddhist monks and local people. Given the lack of any baseline information, it is difficult for us to recommend and provide any effective conservation measures.

We present the first case of angioinvasive pulmonary aspergillosis caused by Aspergillus fumigatus in a Himalayan Griffon vulture ( Gyps himalayensis). We describe in detail the clinical, gross, histopathological and mycological findings. Clinical signs of weakness, emaciation, dyspnea, incoordination, and inability to fly were observed in this bird before succumbing to the illness, despite supportive care. Grossly, several yellowish circumscribed, raised, miliary nodules were observed on the surface of lungs, air sac membranes, trachea, pericardium, aorta, pulmonary artery and kidneys. Histologically, granulomatous pneumonia and airsacculitis, and angioinvasion of fungal hyphae were noticed. Aspergillus fumigatus organism was isolated from the lungs and air sacs of the bird. This seems to be the first report of angioinvasive pulmonary aspergillosis in birds of prey, and a rare finding in avian species.

The collapse of South Asia's Gyps vulture populations is attributable to the veterinary use of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) diclofenac. Vultures died after feeding on carcasses of recently-medicated animals. The governments of India, Nepal and Pakistan banned the veterinary use of diclofenac in 2006. We analysed results of 62 necropsies and 48 NSAID assays of liver and/or kidney for vultures of five species found dead in India between 2000 and 2012. Visceral gout and diclofenac were detected in vultures from nine states and three species: Gyps bengalensis, Gyps indicus and Gyps himalayensis. Visceral gout was found in every vulture carcass in which a measurable level of diclofenac was detected. Meloxicam, an NSAID of low toxicity to vultures, was found in two vultures and nimesulide in five vultures. Nimesulide at elevated tissue concentrations was associated with visceral gout in four of these cases, always without diclofenac, suggesting that nimesulide may have similar toxic effects to those of diclofenac. Residues of meloxicam on its own were never associated with visceral gout. The proportion of Gyps vultures found dead in the wild in India with measurable levels of diclofenac in their tissues showed a modest and non-significant decline since the ban on the veterinary use of diclofenac. The prevalence of visceral gout declined less, probably because some cases of visceral gout from 2008 onwards were associated with nimesulide rather than diclofenac. Veterinary use of nimesulide is a potential threat to the recovery of vulture populations.

Veterinary use of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) diclofenac has been shown to be the major cause of the collapse of populations of three Gyps vulture species endemic to South Asia. The White-rumped Vulture Gyps bengalensis, Indian Vulture G. indicus and Slender-billed Vulture G. tenuirostris, have declined by more than 98% in the Indian subcontinent since the early 1990s, and are now all listed as ‘Critically Endangered’ (IUCN 2004). Gyps vultures are exposed to diclofenac through consuming the contaminated carcasses of livestock that have been treated with the drug shortly before death and die from kidney failure, with clinical signs of extensive visceral gout and renal damage. These clinical signs and diclofenac residues have been found in carcasses of wild G. bengalensis and G. indicus, and in G. bengalensis either dosed with diclofenac orally or given tissues from diclofenac treated livestock. Research on White-backed Vultures G. africanus, Eurasian Griffons G. fulvus and Cape Vultures G. coprotheres has established that these three species are about as sensitive to diclofenac as G. bengalensis, with birds dying with the same clinical signs of visceral gout and characteristic renal damage. This experimental testing has established that diclofenac is toxic to four species of vultures in the genus Gyps, but information on the toxicity of diclofenac to other members of the genus is lacking.

The dramatic population crashes of 3 species of Gyps vulture have raised concerns about the status of their lesser-known congeners. Among these is the Himalayan griffon, G. himalayensis, an iconic vulture of the Tibetan plateau. The continued existence of this scavenger has not only ecological but also cultural implications because of their unique role in the centuries-old sky burial tradition that is followed by nearly 5 million Tibetan people. A lack of baseline information of the Himalayan griffon limits our ability to take conservation measures. The presented data, which were collected during 1996 and 2004 to 2007, indicate that this species is still widespread throughout the plateau and has not experienced a major population decline, likely as a result of protection by Tibetan Buddhism and limited disturbances from human activities largely due to the remoteness of the plateau. Both site and road counts showed that open meadow habitats had the highest griffon abundance, followed by alpine shrub and forest habitats. Estimates based on road transect counts showed that 229,339 Himalayan griffons (+/- 40,447) occupy the 2.5 million km2 Tibetan plateau. In contrast, the maximum carrying capacity of the plateau, on the basis of the total biomass of potential food resources, is 507,996 griffons, with meadow habitats accounting for about 76% of the total population. Griffons depend largely on livestock carcasses for food and forage in groups averaging 5.5 (range 1-100) individuals. Domestic yaks provide about 64% of the griffons' diet, while wild ungulates and human corpses provide 1% and 2%, respectively. Compared with its lowland congeners, this, the only high-elevation Gyps species, had both low population density and small group size, a likely response to the harsh environmental conditions. Although griffon abundance appears relatively stable in their fairly pristine environment, precautionary measures, including investigation of threats, monitoring of population dynamics, and establishment of modern conservation consciousness among Tibetan Buddhists, should be carried out to ensure that this abundance continues.

SummaryThe population collapse of resident Gyps vulture species in South Asia, caused by the use of a veterinary drug diclofenac, has highlighted an urgent need to monitor numbers of other vulture species in the region. This study assessed population trends of Himalayan Griffon Gyps himalayensis in the mountainous region of Upper Mustang, Nepal, which is an important breeding area for the species. Vultures were surveyed in 2002, 2004 and 2005 by recording the number of birds sighted along 188 km of transects, and observing numbers of birds at breeding colonies. The number of birds recorded per day and per kilometre of transect declined by 67% and 70% respectively over the period of study. The number of active nests declined by 84% from 2002 to 2005. The veterinary drug diclofenac was available in pharmacies in the Mustang region. Young Himalayan Griffons, which migrate to the lowland areas of Nepal and, in increasing numbers to India, are highly likely to be subject to diclofenac poisoning. If this rate of population decline occurs throughout the Himalayan region, the conservation status of the species will need to be urgently reassessed.

Populations of three species of lowland Gyps vultures (G. bengalensis, G. tenuirostris and G. indicus) in South Asia have declined precipitously over the last decade as a result of their feeding on diclofenac-contaminated livestock carcasses. Despite extensive studies on these three species, little is known about population trends in the highland species, Himalayan Vulture (G. himalayensis). We surveyed Himalayan Vultures in Nepal between 2001 and 2006. We found no evidence that their populations are facing the same magnitude of decline or threat as those of the three species of lowland Gyps vultures. We suggest that Himalayan Vultures may not be experiencing the same degree of diclofenac poisoning for a number of reasons, including possibly different foraging behaviors by Himalayan Vultures compared to the other Gyps vultures, and/or relatively lower use of diclofenac in the highland regions.

International audience

Three endemic vulture species Gyps bengalensis , Gyps indicus and Gyps tenuirostris are critically endangered following dramatic declines in South Asia resulting from exposure to diclofenac, a veterinary drug present in the livestock carcasses that they scavenge. Diclofenac is widely used globally and could present a risk to Gyps species from other regions. In this study, we test the toxicity of diclofenac to a Eurasian ( Gyps fulvus ) and an African ( Gyps africanus ) species, neither of which is threatened. A dose of 0.8 mg kg −1 of diclofenac was highly toxic to both species, indicating that they are at least as sensitive to diclofenac as G. bengalensis , for which we estimate an LD 50 of 0.1–0.2 mg kg −1 . We suggest that diclofenac is likely to be toxic to all eight Gyps species, and that G. africanus , which is phylogenetically close to G. bengalensis , would be a suitable surrogate for the safety testing of alternative drugs to diclofenac.

Summary 1 Rapid population declines of the vultures Gyps bengalensis, Gyps indicus and Gyps tenuirostris have recently been observed in India and Pakistan, continuing at least up to 2003. Surveys indicate annual rates of decline of 22–50% for G. bengalensis and G. indicus during 2000–03. Previous studies in Pakistan have shown that the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac causes renal failure and is lethal to G. bengalensis when it feeds on the carcass of a domestic animal that received a normal veterinary dose shortly before death. In Pakistan, diclofenac poisoning was found to be by far the most frequent cause of death. 2 A simulation model of vulture demography, described in this paper, demonstrated that the observed rates of population decline could be caused by contamination with a lethal level of diclofenac in a small proportion (between 1 : 130 and 1 : 760) of ungulate carcasses available to vultures. 3 Proportions of adult and subadult vultures found dead or dying in the wild that had signs of diclofenac poisoning were similar to the proportions of deaths expected from the model if the observed population decline was due entirely to diclofenac poisoning. The proportion of the excess mortality required to cause the observed population declines that could be attributable to diclofenac was estimated to be between 71% and 100%, depending on model assumptions. However, across all or most of the plausible range of assumed values for adult survival, the upper 95% confidence limit for the proportion of excess mortality due to diclofenac was 100%. Hence, available data are consistent with diclofenac poisoning being at least the major cause, and possibly the only cause, of rapid population declines of Gyps vultures across the Indian subcontinent. 4 Synthesis and applications. We recommend that urgent action is taken in the range states of the three currently threatened vulture species to prevent the exposure of vultures to livestock carcasses contaminated with diclofenac. Research is also needed to identify alternative drugs that are effective in livestock and safe for vultures. Efforts should also be made to raise awareness, among veterinarians, pharmacists, livestock owners and the general public, of the problem of diclofenac contamination and the availability of safe alternatives. Captive holding and breeding of vultures until diclofenac is controlled is recommended as a precaution to ensure the long-term survival of the threatened species and to provide a stock of birds for future reintroduction programmes.

In 2000, we conducted a survey to quantify the declines in the populations of Gyps bengalensis and G. indicus across India since 1990–1993. Directly comparable data for the two periods were obtained from over 6000 km of road transect surveys carried out in protected areas, the regions around protected areas and linking highways across the country. An additional 5000 kmwere covered in 2000 in previously unsurveyed areas. Further data were collected fromquestionnaires circulated to ornithologists, wildlife experts and forestry officials. Massive declines in the populations of both species were apparent fromall parts of the country, and exceeded 92% overall. The extent of declines did not differ between protected areas and elsewhere. Apparently sick birds, with drooping necks, were observed in all regions, and dead adult and juvenile vultures were frequently observed. Food availability did not decline greatly over this period. The patterns of declines and the presence of sick and dead birds indicate epidemic disease as a possible

During the last two decades populations of three resident species of Gyps vulture have declined dramatically and are now threatened with extinction in South Asia. Sex identification of vultures is of key importance for the purpose of conservation breeding as it is desirable to have an equal sex ratio in these monogamous species which are housed together in large colony aviaries. Because vultures are monomorphic, with no differences in external morphology or plumage colour between the sexes, other methods are required for sex identification. Molecular methods for sex identification in birds rely on allelic length or nucleotide sequence discrimination of the chromohelicase-DNA binding (CHD) gene located on male and female chromosomes ZZ and ZW, respectively. We characterized the partial sequences of CHD alleles from Gyps indicus, Gyps bengalensis, Gyps himalayensis and Aegypius monachus and analysed the applicability of five molecular methods of sex identification of 46 individual vultures including 26 known-sex G. bengalensis and G. indicus. The results revealed that W-specific PCR in combination with ZW-common PCR is a quick, accurate and simple method, and is ideal for sex identification of vultures. The method is also suitable to augment ecological studies for identifying sex of these endangered birds during necropsy examinations especially when gonads are not apparent, possibly due to regression during non-breeding seasons.

Of the nine species of vultures found in India, seven have been observed in the Great Indian Thar Desert of Rajasthan, viz. the King vulture (Sarcogyps calvus), Cinereous vulture (Aegypius monachus), Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus), Eurasian griffon (Gyps fulvus), Himalayan griffon (Gyps himalayensis), Long-billed vulture (Gyps indicus) and White-backed vulture (Gyps bengalensis). Of these, the king vulture, long-billed vulture, white-backed vulture and Egyptian vulture are residents and breed in the region, whereas the Eurasian griffon, Himalayan griffon and cinereous vulture are winter visitors. Populations of both resident and migratory vultures were observed during the study period. The most common nesting sites are found on cliffs. The long-billed vulture nests and roosts on both cliffs and trees in this region an aspect requiring more intensive work. The white-backed vulture and king vulture also nest in large- and medium-sized trees, and were sighted less often than was the case for the long-billed vulture. The Egyptian vulture was found nesting on cliffs, trees, old buildings (‘havelees’) and high-electricity poles. Climatic conditions, availability of water, socio-economic conditions, traditional livestock rearing, land-use patterns and village institutions, including orans (village forests) and gauchars (village pastures), all play an important role in the conservation of vulture populations in Rajasthan.

Veterinary use of the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory (NSAID) drug diclofenac in South Asia has resulted in the collapse of populations of three vulture species of the genusGyps to the most severe category of global extinction risk. Vultures are exposed to diclofenac when scavenging on livestock treated with the drug shortly before death. Diclofenac causes kidney damage, increased serum uric acid concentrations, visceral gout, and death. Concern about this issue led the Indian Government to announce its intention to ban the veterinary use of diclofenac by September 2005. Implementation of a ban is still in progress late in 2005, and to facilitate this we sought potential alternative NSAIDs by obtaining information from captive bird collections worldwide. We found that the NSAID meloxicam had been administered to 35 captiveGyps vultures with no apparent ill effects. We then undertook a phased programme of safety testing of meloxicam on the African white-backed vultureGyps africanus, which we had previously established to be as susceptible to diclofenac poisoning as the endangered AsianGyps vultures. We estimated the likely maximum level of exposure (MLE) of wild vultures and dosed birds by gavage (oral administration) with increasing quantities of the drug until the likely MLE was exceeded in a sample of 40G. africanus. Subsequently, sixG. africanus were fed tissues from cattle which had been treated with a higher than standard veterinary course of meloxicam prior to death. In the final phase, ten Asian vultures of two of the endangered species(Gyps bengalensis,Gyps indicus) were dosed with meloxicam by gavage; five of them at more than the likely MLE dosage. All meloxicam-treated birds survived all treatments, and none suffered any obvious clinical effects. Serum uric acid concentrations remained within the normal limits throughout, and were significantly lower than those from birds treated with diclofenac in other studies. We conclude that meloxicam is of low toxicity toGyps vultures and that its use in place of diclofenac would reduce vulture mortality substantially in the Indian subcontinent. Meloxicam is already available for veterinary use in India., Phased testing reveals that the anti-inflammatory drug meloxicam is less toxic to endangeredGyps vultures than diclofenac and, if used as an alternative, could potentially reverse the catastrophic decline of these species in South Asia.

Recent declines in the populations of three species of vultures in the Indian subcontinent are among the most rapid ever recorded in any bird species. Evidence from a previous study of one of these species, Gyps bengalensis, in the Punjab province of Pakistan, strongly implicates mortality caused by ingestion of residues of the veterinary non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac as the major cause of the decline. We show that a high proportion of Gyps bengalensis and G. indicus found dead or dying in a much larger area of India and Nepal also have residues of diclofenac and visceral gout, a post-mortem finding that is strongly associated with diclofenac contamination in both species. Hence, veterinary use of diclofenac is likely to have been the major cause of the rapid vulture population declines across the subcontinent.

The Oriental white-backed vulture (OWBV; Gyps bengalensis) was once one of the most common raptors in the Indian subcontinent. A population decline of >95%, starting in the 1990s, was first noted at Keoladeo National Park, India. Since then, catastrophic declines, also involving Gyps indicus and Gyps tenuirostris, have continued to be reported across the subcontinent. Consequently these vultures are now listed as critically endangered by BirdLife International. In 2000, the Peregrine Fund initiated its Asian Vulture Crisis Project with the Ornithological Society of Pakistan, establishing study sites at 16 OWBV colonies in the Kasur, Khanewal and Muzaffargarh-Layyah Districts of Pakistan to measure mortality at over 2,400 active nest sites. Between 2000 and 2003, high annual adult and subadult mortality (5-86%) and resulting population declines (34-95%) (ref. 5 and M.G., manuscript in preparation) were associated with renal failure and visceral gout. Here, we provide results that directly correlate residues of the anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac with renal failure. Diclofenac residues and renal disease were reproduced experimentally in OWBVs by direct oral exposure and through feeding vultures diclofenac-treated livestock. We propose that residues of veterinary diclofenac are responsible for the OWBV decline.