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Syncope is a frequently occurring symptom and can originate from various causes. When syncope is related to the upright position or when there is a suspicion of a reflex mechanism, tests assessing the orthostatic cardiovascular adjustments are advised. The orthostatic response is classified into three stages: the initial response (first 30 s), which differs among active or passive changes in posture, the early phase of circulatory stabilization (1-2 min upright), and prolonged orthostatic stress (at least 5 min upright). Three tests of the orthostatic circulatory response are available, testing these different stages of the circulatory response. (1) The active lying-to-standing test using continuous blood pressure monitoring is used to study the quick cardiovascular responses directly after active standing and can detect initial orthostatic hypotension. (2) The active lying-to-standing test using the conventional cuff and stethoscope can be used to assess the orthostatic adjustments in the first 3-5 min after standing. It is used to detect classic orthostatic hypotension. (3) The head-up tilt test evaluates prolonged orthostatic stress and can be applied to detect reflex syncope, delayed orthostatic hypotension or postural tachycardia syndrome. Moreover, all tests may prevent recurrences by identification of symptoms and thus helping patients to recognize the premonitory symptoms for their syncope allowing them to take preventive measures and decrease their anxiety for episodes. Education of physical counterpressure manoeuvres during these tests can additionally increase patients' sense of control over their symptoms.

In this second edition of Electrical Disease of the Heart, our goal was to embrace and highlight the explosion of knowledge that our field has witnessed since the publication of the first edition of this book. Building on the success of our first edition, our approach continues to be one of bridging basic and clinical science in an attempt to meaningfully advance our understanding of heart disease and identify the knowledge gaps that exist. The book is organized into 77 chapters in 2 volumes. Each chapter includes up-to-date results of studies aimed at providing an understanding of the electrical function of the heart in health and disease, established and evidence- based knowledge of clinical outcomes, areas of controversy, and future trends. Our goal is to provide a contemporary and succinct distillation of the state of the art. Although many of the chapters are highly sub-specialized, this book is designed for a broad audience, ranging from medical and graduate students to clinicians and scientists. The book is the result of a collaboration that has brought together the skills and perspectives of researchers, scientists, and clinicians. We are deeply indebted to our associate editors and to all of the authors for their valuable contributions.

Skeletal Muscular Dystrophies are a heterogeneous group of neuromuscular disorders, that have a hereditary origin and all cause muscle weakness. Over the past decades, the enigmatic pathogenic origins of most common forms of skeletal muscular dystrophy have been defined. The identification of causative genes made it possible to differentiate between the different forms of muscular dystrophy. Since the identification of the genetic origins of the different muscular dystrophy forms, it has become apparent that a significant overlap exists between muscular dystrophy and cardiac abnormalities, in particular dilated cardiomyopathy. Although neurological and cardiac abnormalities may occur as isolated disorders, cardiac abnormalities often occur in association with skeletal muscular dystrophy, with genetic defects involving the sarcolemma, sarcomere, sarcoplasm and nuclear membrane. The type and extent of cardiac manifestation are specific to the type of skeletal muscular dystrophy, and varies from mild to severe heart failure or sudden cardiac death. Therefore, in most individuals with skeletal muscular dystrophies (early) cardiac evaluation is essential.