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The electromyographic properties of the cremaster muscle (CM) are quite different from other skeletal muscles. It shows excessive spontaneous discharges, and the motor unit shape and firing frequency of the CM muscle differ from that of limb muscles. In this study, CM of six adult cadavers and six orchiectomy specimens were used to reveal the detailed histology of the muscle and provide an anatomophysiological explanation for these unusual electromyographic properties. Routine histochemical stains revealed the CM was composed of several distinct bundles of smooth and striated muscle fibers within connective tissue. The smooth muscle fibers that were more profuse than previously known and were not arranged in layers, but widely dispersed between striated muscle fibers. Bielschowsky silver staining technique, anti-neurofilament and anti-synaptophysin immunostaining showed the presence of multiple motor end-plates observed as a series of small dots or lines running along the striated muscle fibers and several nerve endings on a single muscle fiber. Myosin immunostaining confirmed the CM is a slow-twitch muscle, and alpha-actin smooth muscle immunostaining confirmed the presence of a large number of smooth muscle fibers. There were also small multipolar neurons forming nerve plexuses between smooth muscle fibers. Anti-GFAP immunostaining confirmed the presence of glial cells similar to astrocytes. In conclusion, the findings of this detailed anatomical study showed the CM, widely known as a striated muscle, contains a large number of smooth muscle fibers, and the spontaneous electromyographic discharges are due to the presence of multiple motor end-plates and dense innervation.

Results of electrophysiological studies suggest a significant role of the lateral spinal nucleus (LSpN) in the transmission of nociceptive signals. In our study, the presence of Fos immunoreactivity and NADPH-diaphorase positivity was observed in the rat LSpN following noxious peripheral subcutaneous stimulation. Formalin-induced unilateral hindpaw stimulation in the rat caused bilateral NADPH-d reactivity and ipsilateral Fos expression in this nucleus. In the LSpN of the L3-L5 segments of stimulated rats, on average, 4.1 +/- 1.2 NADPH-d-positive, NADPH-d(+), 5.1+1.8 Fos-immunoreactive, Fos(+), and 3.0 +/- 1.1 double-labeled neurons per 25-mu m-thick section were found unilaterally. A close anatomical relationship between NADPH-d(+) processes and Fos(+) cell nuclei in the LSpN was also observed following noxious peripheral stimulation. These neuroanatomical findings support the hypothesis that the LSpN is involved in pain processing and suggest an important role of nitric oxide-mediated signal transduction in this nucleus.

WOS: 000245013200005, PubMed ID: 17384491, Anatomical measurements of the cervical pedicle in a large series of human cervical vertebrae from 48 individuals were obtained to reduce the incidence and severity of complications caused by transpedicular screw placement. The greatest pedicle length was at C-3 and the greatest pedicle width was at C-6. Pedicle width and lateral mass thickness gradually increased from C-3 to C-6. Pedicle height and interpedicular distance increased from C-3 to C-5, and decreased slightly at C-6. The lateral mass-pedicle length was greatest at C-4. The present study found right-left differences for the pedicle-spinous process distance at C-6 (p < 0.05). Pedicle width and height were smaller than those reported in earlier studies, especially at C-3 and C-4, whereas the increasing pedicle widths at C-5 and C-6 were appropriate for pedicle screw fixation.

Anomalies of the brachial plexus and its terminal branches are not uncommon. Communicating branch arising from the musculocutaneous nerve to the median nerve is a frequent variation, whereas the presence of an anastomotic branch arising from the median nerve and joining the musculocutaneous nerve is very rare. During routine dissection of cadaver upper limbs, we observed an anastomotic branch arising from the median nerve running distally to join with the branches of the musculocutaneous nerve in a left upper extremity. The anastomotic branch originated from the median nerve 11.23 cm proximal to the interepicondylar line. After running distally and coursing between the biceps brachii and the brachialis muscles, this anastomotic branch communicated with two branches of the musculocutaneous nerve separately. The presence of the communicating branches between these nerves should be considered during surgical interventions and clinical investigations of the arm.

Various factors affect the development of the vertebral canal. The dimensions of the vertebral canal and the intervertebral foramen can be altered by these factors before or after birth. Sex differences in dimensions have also been reported. When there is a stenosis of the vertebral canal or the intervertebral foramen, neural structures confined within them can be affected easily, resulting in symptoms. Using computed tomography images, we compared vertebral canal dimensions in 100 patients with low back pain and/or radiculopathy with those in 40 healthy, non-symptomatic controls. We also measured the dimensions of 275 dry bones. We found significant correlations among the variables in the live subjects. We found significant differences between patients and controls in the variables that were measured. Stenoses were more prevalent in females. Dry bone measurements showed some sex differences, and stenosis mainly in vertebrae L4, L5 and S1.

In this study we present the incidence of caroticoclinoid foramen and interclinoid osseous bridge and some topographic aspects regarding the clinoidal internal carotid artery (ICA) in a recent Turkish population to provide a guide for neurosurgeons in any surgical approach, especially to the cavernous sinus. One hundred nineteen adult dry skulls and 52 adult cadaveric heads were used for this purpose. Caroticoclinoid foramen and the interclinoid osseous bridge were divided into three types based on the classification of Keyers [13]. Caroticoclinoid foramen was observed in 35.67% of the specimens, unilaterally in 23.98%, and bilaterally in 11.69%. The complete-type caroticoclinoid foramen was observed in 4.09% of the specimens, the contact type in 4.68%, and the incomplete type in 14.91%. Transverse diameter of the foramen was 5.32+/-0.52 mm for the incomplete type. The incidence of interclinoid osseous bridge was 8.18%. The middle clinoid process was prominent in 15.12% of cases and rudimental in 13.23%. The mean distance between the proximal and distal dural rings of the clinoidal ICA was 4.51+/-0.44 mm, and mean diameter of the distal ring was 5.25+/-0.59 mm. Right-left differences were assessed for each parameter, and populational differences are discussed.

The cranio-orbital foramen, a foramen in the lateral wall of the orbit, contains an anastomosis between the anterior branch of the middle meningeal artery and the lacrimal artery. Previous workers have speculated that the groove starting either from the cranio-orbital foramen or the lateral extremity of the superior orbital fissure contains the anastomotic artery. We investigated the cranio-orbital foramen and the groove on the lateral wall of the orbit in a series of 170 dried adult human skulls, and the course of the orbital branch of the middle meningeal artery in 74 specimens from 37 cadavers. We observed the cranio-orbital foramen in 141 skulls (82.9%). It was unilateral in 55 (32.4%) and bilateral in 86 (50.6%) skulls. The groove on the lateral wall of the human orbit was observed in 122 skulls (71.8%). It was unilateral in 40 (23.5%) and bilateral in 82 (48.2%). The groove on the lateral wall of the orbit started from the cranio-orbital foramen in 20 skulls (11.8%). The orbital branch of the middle meningeal artery was found in 48 cadaveric specimens (64.9%): 32 (43.2%) passed through the cranio-orbital foramen and 12 (16.2%) passed through the superior orbital fissure. In four specimens (5.4%), orbital branches of the middle meningeal artery passed through both the superior orbital fissure and the cranio-orbital foramen. The anatomy of the cranio-orbital foramen and the course of the orbital branch should be well known by surgeons reconstructing the anterior base of the skull, the orbit after orbital base surgery, and during excision of meningiomas. Clin. Anat. 18:10–14, 2005. © 2004 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

In this paper, we present the results of our investigations on the neuro-arterial relations in the region of the optic canal. A thorough knowledge of the microanatomic features of the ophthalmic artery, optic canal and optic nerve is very important for surgeons approaching lesions of this area. We aimed to extend our present knowledge of the origin of the ophthalmic artery and microsurgical anatomy of the optic canal with exposure of the optic nerve. The optic canal walls and width and height of the orbital and cranial apertures, and thickness of the bony roof of the optic canal were measured on the right and left sides of 57 sphenoid bones, 102 skull bases and 58 fixed adult cadaver heads. The ophthalmic artery originated from the rostromedial circumference of the internal carotid artery in 51.8%, from the medial circumference in 26.2% and the laterobasal circumference in 22% of the specimens. The outer diameter of the ophthalmic artery at its origin was 1.81 ± 0.36 mm on the right and 1.75 ± 0.37 mm on the left side.

The microsurgical anatomy of the cavernous sinus of 54 Turkish adult cadaveric heads (108 specimens) was examined to provide data for major topographic aspects and morphometry of the region, which is of special clinical importance for neurosurgeons. Significant findings were: 1) the abducent nerve in the cavernous sinus was observed as one rootlet in most of the specimens (78%), two rootlets in 14%, three in 5% and four in 3% of the specimens; 2) the anterior inferior venous space was dominant in 58%, the posterior superior venous space in 16%, and an intermediate type in 29% of the specimens; 3) the artery of the inferior cavernous sinus originated from the internal carotid artery (ICA) in 74% of the cases, and 4) the dorsal meningeal artery originated from the ICA in 6 (5.5%) of the specimens.

Topographic landmarks for the superior orbital fissure are useful for general orientation and approach to the middle fossa, cavernous sinus and orbit. In this study, the microsurgical anatomy and morphometry of the superior orbital fissure and its related structures were examined in 57 disarticulated sphenoid bones, 102 skull bases and 58 adult cadaveric heads. The superior orbital fissure was observed in nine different shapes based on the classification of Sharma et al. (1988), and the most frequently observed was Type VI. The distance from the superomedial to the superolateral edge was measured as 17.3 +/- 3.4 mm on the right side and 16.9 +/- 2.9 mm on the left side, and from the superolateral to the inferior edge as 20.8 +/- 3.9 mm on the right side and 20.1 +/- 3.8 mm on the left side. The distance from the superomedial to the inferior edge of the fissure was measured as 9.5 +/- 2.2 mm on the right side and 9 +/- 2.4 mm on the left side. No right-left differences were observed for these measurements. Measurements regarding the relationship of the oculomotor, trochlear and abducent nerves, the ophthalmic branch of the trigeminal nerve and the superior orbital vein were performed and topographic aspects of the superior orbital fissure region were described.

Variations in the shape and size of the cerebral falx can embarrass the surgical treatment of lesions in and around the falx. In this study, anatomy and morphometry of the cerebral falx in adult cadaveric specimens were examined to enable easy approach during surgery.Fifty-two adult cadaver cerebral hemispheres with dura from the cadaver collection of the Department of Anatomy, Ege University, Faculty of Medicine were examined in 2003. The cerebral falx was observed in 3 different types. The heights of the cerebral falx and the heights of interspace between the lower margin of the cerebral falx and corpus callosum were measured.The most frequently observed type of cerebral falx was Type I based on the classification of Jiang and Jia. The average heights of the cerebral falx measured 21.3 mm anteriorly, 25.7 mm in the middle and 45.6 mm posteriorly in Type I; 27.9 mm anteriorly, 30.5 mm in the middle and 47 mm posteriorly in Type II; 28.7 mm anteriorly, 36.5 mm in the middle and 44.1 mm posteriorly in Type III. The average heights of the interspace between the lower margin of the cerebral falx and corpus callosum were 14.1 mm anteriorly, 12.4 mm in the middle and 2.1 mm posteriorly in Type I; 6.3 mm anteriorly, 7.2 mm in the middle and 1 mm posteriorly in Type II; 2.3 mm anteriorly, 1.8 mm in the middle and 0.6 mm posteriorly in Type III. Natural defects were found on the cerebral falx in 12 (23%) specimens.Measurements of the cerebral falx provide useful information for neurosurgeons in treatment of lesions involving the region. This study presents more detailed data compared to those reported in the few previously published papers, results differing due to differences of the populations investigated.

Variations in the shape and size of the sigmoid sulcus were investigated in 561 temporal bones (438 isolated temporal bones, 49 skull bases and 25 half skull bases) and measurements of related structures were made. Right-left differences were analysed. The sigmoid sulcus was significantly wider (12 mm) and longer (38 mm) in the skull bases, while no differences were observed in the isolated temporal bones. The distance from the most prominent point of the mastoid process to the Frankfort horizontal plane (FHP) was 33 mm; no right-left difference was found. The distance from the genu of the sigmoid sulcus to the external acoustic meatus was 24.06 mm on the right side and 24.74 mm on the left side and this difference is significant, being considerably longer on the left side. The jugular foramen diameter was 7.8 mm; no right-left difference was observed. The relationship of the mastoid air cells to the sulcus was analysed and air cells were found just behind the sulcus in 66% and behind and posterior to the sulcus in 5% of temporal bones.

The laminar distribution of spinomesencephalic, spinothalamic, and spinotelencephalic tract neurons, and the pattern of axonal collateralization in these spinocerebral pathways were studied in the rat by means of retrograde double-labelling of the cells with fluorescent dyes Fluoro-Gold and Primuline O. We found that sources of spinocerebral pathways to the analgesic brainstem centers, as well to thenucl. accumbens and septal nuclei, were mixed together in the marginal zone (lamina I, by Rexed), in the deep dorsal horn (laminae IV–VI), in the area around the central canal (lamina X), and within the lateral spinal nucleus. At the same time, all the above pathways retain their own specific projection fields. Thus, these spinocerebral projections could be characterized as extensive, but not diffuse. We propose that the main effect of activation of the direct spinal inputs to the limbic system is an increase in nociceptive sensitivity, but not a suppression of nocicptive transmission at the the spinal cord level.

The participation of pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus in descending pain control mechanisms has been proposed. The aim of this study was to investigate NADPH-d and c-Fos reactivity in the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus following noxious peripheral stimulation. Formalin induced hind paw inflammation in the rat resulted in bilateral increase of Fos and NADPH-d expression in the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus. Approximately 30% of labelled cells were double-labelled. Close proximity to NADPH-d labelled neuronal processes with Fos-labelled nuclei were observed. This anatomical relationship supports the hypothesis that pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus is involved in pain modulation and proposes a new explanation for the presence of nitric oxide in this nucleus.

The purpose of this study was to present the morphometry and pneumatization of the sphenoid sinus in detail for the neurosurgeon for transnasal approach to the hypophyseal tumors and especially for functional endoscopic sinus surgery.One hundred and eighty midsagittal magnetic resonance images, 48 bones and 29 hemi-sectioned cadaveric heads obtained from Ege University, Faculty of Medicine, Departments of Anatomy and Radiology were used in 2003. The sphenoid sinuses were classified into sellar, pre-sellar, conchal and post-sellar types according to the extent of their posterior limits. Different measurements based on the surgical approach and sinus size were performed.Conchal type sinus was observed in 1.9%, pre-sellar type 9%, sellar type 52.9% and post-sellar type 36.2% of the specimens. Conchal type sphenoid sinus was not observed in males, but in 1.7% of females. Pre-sellar type was observed in 5.6% of males and 2.8% of females. Sellar type was found in 24.4% of males and 23.9% females, and post-sellar type in 19.5% of males and 22.2% of females. The sphenoid sinus length at the upper and lower parts was 13.51+/-3.25mm and 24.57+/-6.65mm. The sphenoid sinus height at the anterior and posterior parts was 21.27+/-4.25mm and 14.5+/-4.07mm. Distance from the ostium to limen was 56.6+/-5.6mm and from ostium to sill was 64.6+/-6.11mm in cadaveric specimens. In MR images, distance from the ostium to the sill was 68.7+/-5.9mm and from sella to sill 82.8+/-6.2mm.Sphenoid sinus variations observed in pneumatization, size, localization and shape are important in providing a better surgical approach and avoiding surgical complications.

To present the incidence, morphology, and the relationships of the accessory head of the flexor pollicis longus (Gantzer`s) muscle (AHFPL) in a recent Turkish population.The study was performed on 52 upper extremities of 26 adult Turkish cadavers in the Department of Anatomy, Ege University Faculty of Medicine, Izmir, Turkey in 2005. In our dissections, the prevalence and anatomical morphology of the AHFPL including muscle shape, origin and insertion point, and its relation to the anterior interosseous nerve (AIN) was examined.The AHFPL muscle was found in 27 upper extremities (51.9%). It was bilateral in 10 cadavers (74%), and unilateral in 7 cadavers (26%). The muscle shape was spindle in 19 (70.4%), and papillary in 8 (29.6%). The AHFPL originated from the coronoid process of the ulna in 22 upper extremities (81.5%), and the medial epicondyle of the humerus in 5 cases (18.5%). The AIN passed anterior to the AHFPL in one case (3.7%), lateral in 3 (11.1%), posterolateral in 8 (29.6%) and posterior in 15 (55.6%) cases.The knowledge of the morphology and the topography of the AIN and AHFPL is important for understanding the mechanism of the AIN syndrome. The results of this study show the mechanical compression due to the AHFPL may be a cause of the pronator and AIN syndromes.

To investigate nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate-diaphorase (NADPH-d) and fos expression in spinal cord dorsal horn neurons following noxious peripheral stimulation.Expression of the immediate-early gene c-fos and nitric oxide containing neurons one hour after unilateral formalin injection to the dorsal hind paw was investigated in rat lumbar spinal cord, using fos immunohistochemistry and NADPH-d histochemical techniques. The experiments were performed in 2004 and 2006 at Ege University Center for Brain Research in Izmir, Turkey.In 10 adult male Sprague-Dawley rats, an increase in fos-immunoreactive neurons was observed ipsilateral, and NADPH-d positive neurons equally ipsi- and contralateral to the formalin injection site. Approximately 20% of fos-immunoreactive neurons were NADPH-d positive ipsilateral to the formalin injection, whereas no double labeling was observed in the contralateral side. Also, a close relation of NADPH-d positive processes with fos-immunoreactive nuclei were also observed.The results of this study support the hypothesis that nitric oxide synthase blocking agents may serve as a possible alternative in treatment of hyperalgesia following inflammation and peripheral nerve injury.

Publisher Summary This chapter describes the anatomy of the dorsal and ventral roots and spinal nerves. The spinal nerves transmit sensory information from the target organs to the central nervous system, and send motor commands from the central nervous system to muscles and target organs. Along the entire length of the spinal cord, spinal nerves arise at regular intervals and leave the vertebral column between the adjacent vertebrae through the intervertebral foramina. Each spinal nerve is attached to the spinal cord by a ventral (anterior) and a dorsal (posterior) root. The ventral and dorsal roots join together and form the spinal nerve at each segmental level. The spinal nerve runs from the lateral aspect of the dural sac to the intervertebral foramen in a tubular canal of variable length; this canal is named the nerve root canal. Each ventral root (also named the anterior root, radix anterior, radix ventralis, or radix motoria) is attached to the spinal cord by a series of rootlets that emerge from the ventrolateral sulcus of the spinal cord. Each dorsal spinal root bears an ovoid swelling named the dorsal root (spinal) ganglion (DRG). A dermatome is the area of skin supplied by a single spinal nerve. Dermatomes have a segmental distribution represented as narrow bands of skin running almost horizontally along the trunk in a regular fashion.

This chapter introduces the general anatomy and organization of the spinal cord. The spinal cord is the part of the central nervous system that controls the voluntary muscles of the limbs and trunk, and which receives sensory information from these regions. It also controls most of the viscera and blood vessels of the thorax, abdomen, and pelvis. The cord is described as being made up of a series of segmental components, but in the adult the cord is actually a continuous cylinder of central nervous tissue. The segments are determined by the pattern of emergence of spinal nerves; the nerve rootlets arising from the cord are bundled together so that one pair of spinal nerves emerges from each segment. The spinal cord and its meninges (dura mater, arachnoid, and pia mater) lie within the vertebral canal. The spinal cord is cylindrical, but slightly flattened dorsoventrally. The spinal white matter occupies most of the cross-sectional area of the cervical enlargement, while the spinal cord gray matter is greatly enlarged in the regions where the nerves of the limbs (the brachial and lumbosacral plexuses) arise. The human spinal cord has 12 thoracic segments, 5 lumbar segments, 5 sacral segments, and 1 coccygeal segment, making a total of 31 segments. Pairs of spinal nerves arise from the spinal cord and leave the vertebral column through the intervertebral foramina. The central canal of the spinal cord is a remnant of the embryological ventricular system and is present throughout the whole length of the spinal cord. The spinal cord is supplied by a single ventral spinal artery and two dorsal spinal arteries.

This chapter provides the fundamental structural map of the spinal cord of the principal laboratory research animal, the mouse, and describes issues and procedures that are used in preparation of mouse spinal cord sections. The sections of mice spinal cord displayed in the atlas were stained either for Nissl or acetylcholinesterase (AChE). The atlas also includes a set of sections from a special series prepared by the Allen Institute for Brain Science. The Institute has prepared a large series of spinal cord sections to display gene patterns revealed by in situ hybridization (ISH), and the set presented is a reference set for study of normal anatomy of the spinal cord segments. The Allen Institute spinal cord sections were taken from a single spinal cord and stained serially with Nissl, AChE, and hematoxylin and eosin (H&E). The laminae in the spinal cord gray matter are identified according to the schema developed by Bror Rexed (1952).

Publisher Summary This chapter focuses on the vertebral column and spinal meninges of the spinal cord, and describes their features in humans and rodents. The vertebral column, also known as the spinal column, is the central axis of the skeleton in all vertebrates. The vertebral column provides attachments to muscles, supports the trunk, protects the spinal cord and nerve roots, and serves as a site for hemopoiesis. The mammalian vertebral column consists of five morphologically differentiated groups of vertebrae: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal (caudal). In humans, the vertebral column usually consists of 33 vertebrae, placed in series and connected by ligaments and intervertebral discs. Each vertebra consists of two essential parts, a ventral body and a dorsal vertebral arch, which enclose the vertebral foramen. The rat has 57–60 vertebrae divided into five groups: 7 in the cervical, 13 in the thoracic, 6 in the lumbar, 4 in the sacral, and 8–32 in the coccygeal (tail) region. The meninges enclosing the spinal cord consist of three layers: the outermost dura mater (pachymenix), the intermediate arachnioid mater and the innermost pia mater. There are three spaces within the sheaths of the spinal cord: the epidural, subdural, and subarachnoid spaces.

Many hundreds of thousands suffer spinal cord injuries leading to loss of sensation and motor function in the body below the point of injury. Spinal cord research has made some significant strides towards new treatment methods, and is a focus of many laboratories worldwide. In addition, research on the involvement of the spinal cord in pain and the abilities of nervous tissue in the spine to regenerate has increasingly been on the forefront of biomedical research in the past years."The Spinal Cord", a collaboration with the Christopher and Dana Reeve Foundation, is the first comprehensive book on the anatomy of the mammalian spinal cord. Tens of thousands of articles and dozens of books are published on this subject each year, and a great deal of experimental work has been carried out on the rat spinal cord. Despite this, there is no comprehensive and authoritative atlas of the mammalian spinal cord. Almost all of the fine details of spinal cord anatomy must be searched for in journal articles on particular subjects.This book addresses this need by providing both a comprehensive reference on the mammalian spinal cord and a comparative atlas of both rat and mouse spinal cords in one convenient source. The book provides a descriptive survey of the details of mammalian spinal cord anatomy, focusing on the rat with many illustrations from the leading experts in the field and atlases of the rat and the mouse spinal cord.The rat and mouse spinal cord atlas chapters include photographs of Nissl stained transverse sections from each of the spinal cord segments (obtained from a single unfixed spinal cord), detailed diagrams of each of the spinal cord segments pictured, delineating the laminae of Rexed and all other significant neuronal groupings at each level and photographs of additional sections displaying markers such as acetylcholinesterase (AChE), calbindin, calretinin, choline acetlytransferase, neurofilament protein (SMI 32), enkephalin, calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), and neuronal nuclear protein (NeuN).The text provides a detailed account of the anatomy of the mammalian spinal cord and surrounding musculoskeletal elements. The major topics addressed are: development of the spinal cord; the gross anatomy of the spinal cord and its meninges; spinal nerves, nerve roots, and dorsal root ganglia; the vertebral column, vertebral joints, and vertebral muscles; blood supply of the spinal cord; cytoarchitecture and chemoarchitecture of the spinal gray matter; musculotopic anatomy of motoneuron groups; tracts connecting the brain and spinal cord; spinospinal pathways; sympathetic and parasympathetic elements in the spinal cord; neuronal groups and pathways that control micturition; and, the anatomy of spinal cord injury in experimental animals.The atlas of the rat and mouse spinal cord has the following features: photographs of Nissl stained transverse sections from each of 34 spinal segments for the rat and mouse; detailed diagrams of each of the 34 spinal segments for rat and mouse, delineating the laminae of Rexed and all other significant neuronal groupings at each level; and, alongside each of the 34 Nissl stained segments, there are additional sections displaying markers such as acetylcholinesterase, calbindin, calretinin, choline acetlytransferase, neurofilament protein (SMI 32), and neuronal nuclear protein (NeuN). All the major motoneuron clusters are identified in relation to the individual muscles or muscle groups they supply.

Publisher Summary This chapter deals with projections that originate from the spinal cord and descent that brain to spinal cord. The ascending spinal projections connect the spinal cord to supraspinal levels and transmit sensory information such as pain, temperature, position sense, and touch from somatic structures and pressure, pain and visceral information from internal organs. Spinal cord neurons project to the brainstem, cerebellum, midbrain, diencephalons, and telencephalon. Some projections, such as the postsynaptic dorsal column pathway and the spinocervical pathway, synapse with second-order neurons, which in turn project to higher centers. Some of the projections are directly to supraspinal structures, such as the spinothalamic, spinomesencephalic, and spinohypothalamic tracts. Ascending spinal projections are composed of mostly myelinated dorsal root fibers from the dorsal root ganglia and axons of spinal neurons. Anatomically, the ascending spinal projections are located in the ventral, lateral and dorsal funiculi on each side of the spinal cord. In experimental animals, electrophysiological studies and anatomical tract tracing methods using tracers and Wallerian degeneration technique have collectively provided extensive and accurate information on ascending spinal projections. In humans, on the contrary, information is limited to data obtained from patients with localized traumatic and inflammatory spinal lesions, or surgical interventions.

Publisher Summary This chapter describes the cellular architecture of the spinal cord. The gray matter of the spinal cord is morphologically heterogeneous. The cells of the spinal cord gray matter differ considerably in terms of size, shape and density. However, the gray matter does show some intrinsic organization, so that zones of regularity or laminae can be identified. The concept of laminae has been adopted widely for describing cytoarchitectonic boundaries in the spinal cord in many species. These laminae were first described by Rexed (1954) in the cat. Since then, the concept of laminae has been adopted widely for describing cytoarchitectonic boundaries in the spinal cord in many species, though detailed examination and description of these laminae have only been completed in the mouse and human, in addition to Rexed's original work in the cat. In general, the organization of the Rexed's laminae in these mammalian species is similar. Ten laminae are recognized and these are organized in a series of layers from dorsal to ventral, but with lamina 10 (also called area 10) found around the central canal. The chapter discusses the major cytological characteristics of each of the laminae. Many studies have shown that neurons within a lamina often show distinct dendritic architecture, chemoarchitecture and patterns of connections as well as function.

This chapter provides the fundamental structural map of the spinal cord of the principal laboratory research animal, the rat. The rat spinal cord atlas is based on a set of Nissl stained transverse sections from a single spinal cord (the master set), supplemented by additional sections at each level stained with a range of chemical marker stains. The atlas includes features such as photographs of Nissl stained transverse sections from each of the spinal cord segments (obtained from a single unfixed spinal cord); detailed diagrams of each of the spinal cord segments delineating the laminae of Rexed and all other significant neuronal groupings at each level; photographs of additional sections displaying markers such as acetylcholinesterase (AChE), calbindin, calretinin, choline acetlytransferase, neurofilament protein (SMI 32), enkephalin, calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), and neuronal nuclear protein (NeuN); and all the major motoneuron clusters identified in relation to the individual muscles or muscle groups they supply.

The relationship between nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate-diaphorase-positive neurons and blood vessels was investigated within the rat basal ganglia. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate-diaphorase-positive cell bodies, dendrites or axon-like processes surrounding many but not all blood vessels were observed in the caudate-putamen, ventral pallidum, medial part of the globus pallidus, substantia nigra and subthalamic nucleus. It is concluded that this close relationship contributes to the local vasodilator effect of nitric oxide in the regulation of blood flow in cerebral blood vessels.

WOS: 000234117000001, PubMed ID: 16377947, The topographic anatomy and morphometry of the fornix is important for standardizing the transcallosal-interforniceal approach and avoiding memory disturbances. The detailed morphometry of the fornix was investigated with a special emphasis on sex differences using midsagittal magnetic resonance imaging of 80 males and 102 females. Various parameters of the fornix, including the length of the upper and lower fornices, the curvature of the upper and lower fornices, and the insertion point of the fornix to corpus callosum, were investigated. The thickness of the fornix at the attachment point to the anterior commissure, the maximum distance to the upper and lower surfaces of the fornix, and the curvature of the upper and lower fornices showed sex differences (p < 0.5). The upper insertion point of the fornix to the corpus callosum was more frontal in females, but the functional relevance of these differences need further investigation.

The anterior third ventricle region acquires clinical significance in benign and malignant tumors and cyst formations, of which craniopharyngiomas and gliomas are the most common. The subfrontal approach is one of the most preferred approaches for removing these tumors. In this study, the microsurgical anatomy of 81 Turkish, adult cadaveric hemispheres was examined to provide morphometric data of the region. These measurements from the anterior third ventricle region serve as a guide for neurosurgeons during surgical approach for removing anterior third ventricle tumors.

The retrograde tracer fluoro-gold was injected into the periaqueductal grey, thalamus or hypothalamus, and spinal cord sections were processed for neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) immunohistochemistry to investigate the relationships of nNOS immunoreactive, and spinomesencephalic, spinothalamic and spinohypothalamic projection neurones. In addition, in the lateral spinal nucleus the relationship between spinomesencephalic, -thalamic and -hypothalamic projection neurones, and nNOS and interferon-gamma receptor immunoreactive structures was investigated at the lumbar level. No single retrogradely labelled spinomesencephalic, -thalamic or -hypothalamic neurone showed nNOS immunoreactivity. In the lateral spinal nucleus, however, many fluoro-gold-labelled neurones were closely apposed by both nNOS and interferon-gamma receptor immunoreactive structures, especially prominent in the hypothalamic injection cases. This study gave no evidence for nNOS immunoreactivity in spinal neurones projecting to the periaqueductal grey, thalamus or hypothalamus, but suggests that in the lateral spinal nucleus such neurones are contacted by both nNOS- and interferon-gamma receptor-containing axon terminals.

Diaphragmatic crus lipoma is a very rare entity. In this case report, smooth, rounded masses of diaphragmatic lipoma, incidentally observed in a 37-year-old female on routine abdominal computed tomographic scanning is presented.

The signal intensity pattern of normal clivus bone marrow related to age was studied on Tl-weighted sagittal plain magnetic resonance images. Bone marrow in the clivus had a uniformly low signal intensity (grade 1) in 100% of the patients at 0–5 years and 96% of patients in the first decade (0–9 years). In the second decade there was a sharp decrease in the number of patients (43%) showing grade 1 clivus. Patients having mixed clivus signal intensity (grade 2) were mostly seen in the second decade (28.5%). Uniform high signal intensity (grade 3) was not observed under the age of 10. Grade 3 clivus pattern increased with age from the second decade, while grades 1 and 2 clivus bone marrow showed a marked decrease. Les aspects normaux de l’intensite de signal de la moelle osseuse du clivus en fonction de l’âge furent etudies en imagerie par resonance magnetique en coupes sagittales pondees Tl. La moelle osseuse du clivus possedait un hyposignal homogene (grade 1) chez 100% des sujets âges de 0 a 5 ans et chez 96% des sujets dans la premiere decade (0–9 ans). En seconde decade il y avait une forte diminution du nombre de patients (43%) presentant un clivus de grade 1. Les patients presentant un clivus d’intensite de signal mixte (grade 2) furent principalement rencontres dans la seconde decade (28,5%). Un hypersignal homogene (grade 3) n’etait pas observe avant l’âge de 10 ans. Les aspects de clivus de grade 3 augmentaient avec l’âge apres la seconde decade, tandis que les aspects de grade 1 et 2 presentaient une forte diminution.

La fissure orbitaire sup6rieure (FOS) est une r6gion petite et fonct ionnel lement tr~s importante. L e s nerfs qui v6hiculent des informations aff6rentes et eff6rentes au systbme visuel traversent cette r6gion osseuse compacte [5, 10]. La connaissance d6taill6e des rapports anatomiques de cette rdgion est importante pour le diagnostic pr6cis et la prise en charge des d6sordres affectant cette r6gion. L'approche chirurgicale des 16sions touchant la FOS est rdalis6e par le versant cr~nien ou orbitaire. La craniotomie frontotemporo-orbitaire et la r6section de l 'os sph6no~de, du processus clino'ide ant~rieur et de la partie supdro-lat6rale du toit de l'orbite, n6cessitent une information d6taill6e sur la FOS [3, 9]. De prdc6dentes 6tudes ont rapport6 l'anatomie des tissus mous et durs de la FOS. Dans cette 6tude nous pr6sentons une analyse micro-anatomique de la FOS avec des mesures r6alis6es sur des os secs et des cadavres. Ces mesures fournissent des informations utiles au chirurgien dans le traitement des 16sions int6ressant les ailes de l 'os sph6noi'de, la partie post6rieure de l'orbite, et en particulier la FOS.