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BACKGROUND: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity and includes one of the most prevalent neurodevelopmental disorders in childhood. Despite the high prevalence, many professionals who work with children and adolescents with this disorder do not have enough knowledge on the subject. Physical education professionals deal directly with these children and need the knowledge to choose which skills and/or motor criteria to emphasize in their classes. However, issues related to neurodevelopmental disorders are not frequently addressed in the physical education courses, which impairs proper dealing with this population. AIM: This study aims to verify the level of knowledge about ADHD and its motor impairments in professionals and students of physical education. METHOD: A questionnaire was developed by researchers of motor behavior and was applied to professionals and students of physical education. The participants' responses were then analyzed through descriptive and inferential statistics. RESULTS: The results indicate that although the volunteers have basic notions about the subject, they do not have enough preparation to deal with children with ADHD. CONCLUSION: It was concluded that the knowledge about ADHD is insufficient and a reformulation in the curriculum of physical education courses is recommended.

In this study, we aimed to investigate the influence of executive functions (EF) on motor adaptation. We compared the motor performance of adults with and without EF deficits. Those with EF deficits ( n = 21) were individuals with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) under medical treatment, and those without EF deficits ( n = 21) comprised a control group (CG) of participants who were also without neurological or psychiatric diagnoses. Both groups performed a complex coincident timing motor task and various computerized neuropsychological tests for assessing EF. To investigate motor adaptation, the motor task provided measures of absolute error (AE) and variable error (VE) to reflect, respectively, performance accuracy and consistency relative to the task goal. We used reaction time (RT) to measure planning time taken before starting the task. First, participants practiced until they reached a criterion of performance stabilization (prior to their exposure to motor perturbations). They were next exposed to fast and slow predictable and unpredictable perturbations. On all neuropsychological tasks, participants with ADHD scored more poorly than control participants ( p < .05); participants with ADHD also performed worse than control participants on all motor measures, particularly under unpredictable perturbations ( p < .05). Under slow perturbations, EF deficits, particularly attentional impulsivity, negatively affected motor adaptation while cognitive flexibility was related to performance improvement. Under fast perturbations, both impulsivity and fast reaction time were related to improvement in motor adaptation under both predictable and unpredictable perturbations. We discuss the research and practical implications of these findings.

BACKGROUND: The fronto-central slow-wave known as the contingent negative variation (CNV) is an electroencephalographic measure related to the ability of the motor system to extract spatial-temporal regularities to produce a motor response. AIM: This study aimed to investigate the levels of electrocortical activity prior to predictable and unpredictable stimuli in a motor control task, and the association between CNV and reaction time (RT). METHOD: Seventeen participants performed a task that consisted of removing the right index finger from the space bar as fast as possible after stimulus onset. All participants practiced under both a predictable (PC) and an unpredictable (UC) context. RESULTS: Results indicated that RT under the unpredictable context was slower than under the predictable context. However, CNV levels under predictable and unpredictable contexts did not differ. CONCLUSION: The certainty of stimulus appearance in the UC may have produced effects similar to those under the PC, resulting in similar CNV levels. However, the use of this mechanism under the UC was suboptimal to motor performance.

Background: The benefits of variable practice in motor learning have been traditionally explained by the increased demand for memory processes induced by trial-to-trial changes. Recently, a new perspective associating increased demand for perception with variable practice has emerged. Aim: This revision aims to present and discuss the findings in this exciting topic newly opened. Results / Interpretation: In the second half of 2010’s, a number of studies have pointed out differences in perceptual processing when compared variable and repetitive practices. Different levels of (a) hemodynamic activation, (b) electroencephalographic activity, (c) neurochemical activity, and (d) oculomotor behavior have provided evidence that perceptual processes are affected differently by variable and repetitive practices.

A formal swimming learning occurs through a direct interaction between teacher and learner. The aim of this study is to present models for classification of learning in stages and discuss their implications for the teaching-learning process of swimming. This narrative review was carried out through bibliographic research. We used qualitative and exploratory approaches. Models proposed by Adams (1971), Fitts and Posner, (1967), and Gentile (1972) categorize learning into several stages, accounting for the characteristics of the learners and the environment. To enhance the teaching-learning process of swimming skills, the teacher must recognize the stages in which the learner finds himself, and to establish efficient teaching strategies. The learning stage identification affects the manipulation of variables that interfere in learning, such as setting goals, selecting content, choosing appropriate strategies and assessing learning, regardless of the swimming stroke. Even though some points will differ between swimming styles, such as the specificity, the specificity of errors, the informational demand, and the amount of practice, it is the teacher's role to establish the relationship between the student and the contents to be taught in the teaching-learning process. Overall, the quality of the teaching-learning process will depend on the teacher’s ability to propose contents that are appropriate to the characteristics, needs and expectations of the learners, being sufficiently challenging to arouse motivation and to promote skills learning. El aprendizaje formal de la natación ocurre mediante una interacción directa entre maestro y alumno. El objetivo de este estudio fue presentar modelos de clasificación del aprendizaje en etapas y discutir sus implicaciones para el proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje de la natación. Esta revisión narrativa se realizó a través de una investigación bibliográfica. Se utilizaron enfoques cualitativos y exploratorios. Los modelos propuestos por Adams (1971), Fitts y Posner, (1967) y Gentile (1972) clasifican el aprendizaje en varias etapas, teniendo en cuenta las características de los alumnos y del entorno. Para potencializar el proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje de las habilidades de natación, el docente debe reconocer las etapas en las que se encuentra el aprendiz y establecer estrategias de enseñanza eficientes. La identificación de la etapa de aprendizaje afecta la manipulación de variables que interfieren en el aprendizaje, como el establecimiento de metas, la selección de contenidos, la elección de estrategias adecuadas y la evaluación del aprendizaje, independientemente del estilo de natación. Aunque algunos puntos diferirán entre los estilos de natación, como la especificidad y cantidad de información, la especificidad de los errores, la demanda de información y la cantidad de práctica, es el papel del profesor establecer la relación entre el estudiante y los contenidos a enseñarse en el proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje. En general, la calidad del proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje dependerá de la capacidad del profesor proponer contenidos adecuados a las características, necesidades y expectativas de los educandos, siendo lo suficientemente desafiantes para despertar la motivación y promover el aprendizaje de competencias. A aprendizagem formal da natação ocorre por meio da interação direta entre professor e aprendiz. O objetivo deste estudo foi apresentar modelos de classificação da aprendizagem em etapas e discutir suas implicações para o processo de ensino-aprendizagem da natação. Esta revisão narrativa foi realizada por meio de pesquisa bibliográfica. Para tanto, utilizaram-se abordagens qualitativas e exploratórias. Os modelos propostos por Adams (1971), Fitts & Posner, (1967) e Gentile (1972) categorizam a aprendizagem em vários estágios, considerando as características dos aprendizes e do ambiente. A fim de potencializar o processo de ensino-aprendizagem na natação, o professor deve reconhecer as etapas em que o aprendiz se encontra e estabelecer estratégias de ensino eficientes. A identificação do estágio de aprendizagem afeta a manipulação de variáveis ​​que influenciam na aprendizagem, como o estabelecimento de metas, a seleção dos conteúdos, a escolha das estratégias adequadas e a avaliação da aprendizagem, independentemente estilo do nado. Ainda que hajam diferenças entre os nados, como a especificidade, a especificidade dos erros, a demanda informacional e a quantidade de prática, é papel do professor estabelecer a relação entre o aluno e os conteúdos a serem ensinados no processo de ensino-aprendizagem. De forma geral, a qualidade do processo de ensino-aprendizagem dependerá da capacidade do professor para propor conteúdos adequados às características, necessidades e expectativas dos aprendizes, conteúdos suficientemente desafiadores para motivá-los e promover aprendizagem.

The biological underpinnings of sex-related differences in decision-making are still under-explored. The COMT gene is related to sexual dimorphism and with different choices made under uncertainty, albeit no study has specifically investigated a moderation effect of sex on the association between the COMT gene and the performance on decision-making paradigms. In this study, we investigated the influence of the COMT Val158Met polymorphism on Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) performance depending on sex in a healthy adult sample. Participants were 192 healthy adults (84 men and 108 women). The first 40 choices in the IGT were considered decisions under ambiguity and the last 60 choices decisions under risk. To test our moderation hypothesis we used a separate regressions approach. The results revealed a sex-dependent effect of COMT Va l158Met polymorphism on decision-making as measured by the IGT. Val/Val women showed the best performance in the last trials of the IGT. Therefore, the COMT Val158Met polymorphism may be considered a genetic marker underlying sex differences in decision-making.

O professor de Educação Física, independente da área de atuação tem um importante papel tanto na identificação das alterações motoras características do Transtorno do Espectro Autista (TEA), quanto também na prescrição de exercícios físicos adequados como estratégia de promoção da qualidade de vida e desenvolvimento global. Este estudo teve por objetivo analisar o conhecimento de graduados e graduandos em Educação Física sobre o TEA. Foi aplicado um questionário a 146 participantes, sendo 106 graduados e 40 graduandos de Educação Física. Os resultados encontrados indicam que os graduados e graduandos em Educação Física, de forma geral, não possuem conhecimentos básicos sobre o TEA, assim como sobre o comportamento motor das crianças com TEA. Estes resultados sugerem que uma possível explicação está na formação de profissionais para a educação inclusiva e manejo das diversidades encontradas, sendo ainda um assunto que demanda mais atenção de pesquisadores e de profissionais da área

Little is known about the role of the attentional, motor and non-planning impulsivities in motor timing tasks. The aim of this study was to correlate the motor performance in a motor timing task with the performance in neuropsychological tests of twenty two volunteers. Before the execution of the motor task, participant wore a headphone and heard five times each temporal reference (2,500 and 3,500 msec) that consisted of two “bips”. After, the motor timing task was performed in five trials of each temporal reference. The task consisted in transporting tennis balls in a pre-defined sequence in each criterion time. It was evaluated: reaction time, movement time, constant error and absolute error. The neuropsychological tests IGT and CPT-II were applied to the evaluation of impulsivities. The findings indicated that attentional impulsivity was more related to the motor performance than the motor and non- planning impulsivities.

O efeito da complexidade da tarefa na direção da transferência bilateral em habilidades motoras seriadas foi investigado através de dois experimentos. Vinte participantes praticaram uma tarefa de menor complexidade (digitação de uma seqüência de teclas) no primeiro experimento, e outros vinte participantes praticaram uma tarefa de maior complexidade (posicionamento de bolas de tênis entre recipientes) no segundo experimento. A meta para ambas as tarefas foi executar os movimentos na maior velocidade possível. Em ambos os experimentos, os sujeitos foram designados aleatoriamente para: 1) grupo de sujeitos que praticou com a mão preferida e foi testado com a mão não-preferida (GMP) e outro grupo que praticou com a mão não-preferida e foi testado com a mão preferida (GMNP). Os experimentos constaram de pré-teste, aquisição e pós-teste. As análises entre o pré e o pós-teste indicaram que, independente da direção da transferência e complexidade da tarefa, os doisgrupos se beneficiaram da transferência bilateral, tanto em termos de desempenho quanto de consistência. A análise dos resultados entre o fim da aquisição e o pós-teste permitiu observar uma relação inversa entre a direção da transferência e complexidade da tarefa. Os resultados são discutidos em termos do tipo de processamento requerido nas tarefas. The effect of task complexity in the bilateral transfer direction in serial motor skills was investigated through two experiments. In the first, twenty participants performed a less complex task (typing a key sequence) and in the second, another group of twenty participants performed a more complex task (positioning). The goal in both tasks was to perform the movements as quickly as possible. In both experiments, the subjects were randomly assigned 1) to the group that practiced with the preferred hand (GPH) and was tested with the non-preferred hand or 2) to the group that practiced with the non-preferred hand (GNPH) and was tested with the preferred hand. The experiment phases consisted of pre-test, acquisition and post-test. The analysis between pre and post-test indicated that independently of the direction of bilateral transfer and task complexity, all groups had the benefits of bilateral transfer in terms of performance and consistency. The analysis between the end of acquisition and the post-test pointed out an inverse relation between the direction of transfer and task complexity. The results are discussed in terms of the kind of processing required in the tasks.

The purpose of the present study was to identify the effects of relative frequency and delay interval of Knowledge of Results (KR) in the acquisition of a serial motor skill. Sixty students were randomly distributed in 2 experiments, with three groups in each experiment (n = 10). The Experiment 1 investigated the effects of the KR frequency without KR delay interval and the Experiment 2 investigated the effects of the KR frequency with KR delay interval (3 seconds) in the acquisition of a serial motor skill. The serial task consisted of putting a tennis ball into six holes, positioned in a wood platform in a previously determined target time. In both experiments, the subjects performed 60 trials in target time of 2,700 ms, in the acquisition phase. In the Experiment 1, the results showed superiority of G33 in relation to the other groups, during the tests. In the Experiment 2, the results did not show any difference among the groups. These results are discussed with respect to the effect of KR delay interval, showing the role of combination of the variables.

Little is known about the role of the attentional, motor and non-planning impulsivities in motor timing tasks. The aim of this study was to correlate the motor performance in a motor timing task with the performance in neuropsychological tests of twenty two volunteers. Before the execution of the motor task, participant wore a headphone and heard five times each temporal reference (2,500 and 3,500 msec) that consisted of two “bips”. After, the motor timing task was performed in five trials of each temporal reference. The task consisted in transporting tennis balls in a pre-defined sequence in each criterion time. It was evaluated: reaction time, movement time, constant error and absolute error. The neuropsychological tests IGT and CPT-II were applied to the evaluation of impulsivities. The findings indicated that attentional impulsivity was more related to the motor performance than the motor and non-planning impulsivities.Key Words: Impulsivity, motor control, motor timing task.Â