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Microalgae are photosynthetic, eukaryotic organisms that are widely used in the industry as cell factories to produce valuable substances, such as fatty acids (polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)), sterols (sitosterol), recombinant therapeutic proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, phenolic compounds (gallic acid, quercetin), and pigments (β-carotene, astaxanthin, lutein). Phenolic compounds and carotenoids, including those extracted from microalgae, possess beneficial bioactivities such as antioxidant capacity, antimicrobial and immunomodulatory activities, and direct health-promoting effects, which may alleviate oxidative stress and age-related diseases, including cardiovascular diseases or diabetes. The production of valuable microalgal metabolites can be modified by using abiotic stressors, such as light, salinity, nutrient availability, and xenobiotics (for instance, phytohormones).

Polyamines (PAs) are involved in plant response to abiotic and biotic stresses, however, their role in biochemical insect-plant interactions is not clear. Therefore, we compared the involvement of polyamines and key enzymes of their biosynthesis in gall formation process. The present study had used galls on oak leaves caused by asexual generation (♀♀) of three Cynipidae species, namely Cynips quercusfolii L., Neuroterus numismalis (Fourc.) and N. quercusbaccarum L., as a model. The obtained results indicate that gall formation on oak leaves affected amine content, but intensity of the changes in their levels were strongly dependent on the insect species. Nevertheless the downward trend was dominant among those changes. Changes in the activity of lysine decarboxylase (LDC), tyrosine decarboxylase (TyDC) and ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) usually corresponded with the direction of changes in polyamine contents. Several cases of divergence between changes in amine levels and the rate of their biosynthesis may suggest the involvement of other regulation mechanisms such as: arginine decarboxylase (ADC) and S-adenosylmethionine decarboxylase (SAMDC) as well as amine oxidases involved in its catabolic pathways. Thus, the future studies on biochemical mechanism of regulation of PAs accumulation during galls formation should be focused on importance of these enzymes.

The main purpose of this paper is to reconstruct the mystical theology of Fr Joachim Badeni, OP. Mystical theology is understood as an interpretation of mystical experience. The characteristic feature of Fr Badeni’s preaching and writing was his intuitive and imaginative style. Therefore, the method adopted in the article consists in extracting from Badeni’s works important themes or images with which he interpreted his experience, and developing their meaning at the background of the contemporary analysis of religious experience and mysticism within the field of philosophy of religion. Badeni’s main concepts are “God’s charm” and “faith as an exodus”. In addition, Christian and Buddhist religious experience will be compared, and the importance of humor in the Dominican’s spirituality will be discussed. Celem artykułu jest rekonstrukcja teologii mistycznej o. Joachima Badeniego OP. Teologia mistyczna jest tu rozumiana jako interpretacja doświadczenia mistycznego. Cechą charakterystyczną kaznodziejstwa i pisarstwa Badeniego był styl intuicyjno-obrazowy. Dlatego metoda przyjęta w artykule polega na wydobywaniu z dzieł omawianego autora ważnych tematów lub obrazów, za pomocą których o. Badeni interpretował swoje doświadczenie, rozwijania ich znaczenia i przedstawienia na tle współczesnych analiz doświadczenia religijnego i mistyki w ramach filozofii religii. Pojęcia te to przede wszystkim „urok Boga” i „wiara jako wyjście”. Dodatkowo omówione zostanie zestawienie chrześcijańskiego i buddyjskiego doświadczenia religijnego oraz znaczenie humoru w duchowości dominikanina.

Oxidative stress has been reported as a cause of many diseases like Parkinson′s, Alzheimer′s, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes. Oxidative stress can also lead to cancer formation by promoting tumor development and progression. Antioxidants derived from Lamiaceae plants play an important role in natural medicine, pharmacology, cosmetology, and aromatherapy. Herein, we examine the antioxidative capacity of essential oils from seven aromatic Lamiaceae plants against the synthetic radicals DPPH and ABTS. Among the essential oils analyzed, the most robust scavenging capacities were found in mixtures of volatile compounds from thyme and savory. The scavenging activity of tested EOs against the ABTS radical was clearly higher than activity towards DPPH. Analysis of essential oils with weaker antioxidant activity has shown that volatile compounds from marjoram, sage, and hyssop were more active than EOs from lavender and mint. It can be suggested that the potent antioxidant capacity of thyme (Thymus vulgaris) and savory (Satyreja hortensis) are related to a high level of phenolic constituents, such as thymol and carvacrol. On the other hand, the elevated antioxidative power of marjoram, sage, and hyssop essential oils may also be due to their terpinene, o-cymene, terpinolene, and terpinen-4-ol constituents. Although non-phenolic components are less active than thymol or carvacrol, they may affect antioxidant capacity synergistically.

Secondary phenolic metabolites are defined as valuable natural products synthesized by different organisms that are not essential for growth and development. These compounds play an essential role in plant defense mechanisms and an important role in the pharmaceutical, cosmetics, food, and agricultural industries. Despite the vast chemical diversity of natural compounds, their content in plants is very low, and, as a consequence, this eliminates the possibility of the production of these interesting secondary metabolites from plants. Therefore, microorganisms are widely used as cell factories by industrial biotechnology, in the production of different non-native compounds. Among microorganisms commonly used in biotechnological applications, yeast are a prominent host for the diverse secondary metabolite biosynthetic pathways. Saccharomyces cerevisiae is often regarded as a better host organism for the heterologous production of phenolic compounds, particularly if the expression of different plant genes is necessary.

Trastuzumab is considered to be a fundamental drug for treatment of breast cancer with Her-2 overexpression (Her-2 positive cells). Trastuzumab is a monoclonal antibody that targets the Her-2 receptor. Trastuzumab treatment used in breast cancer therapy require a visualization to validate their delivery and response. The objective of this study was to investigate Trastuzumab-dendrimer-fluorine drug delivery system by synthesis and characterization of a series of fluorinated dendrimers. Materials and methods Trastuzumab-dendrimer-fluorine drug delivery system is a covalent attachment of Trastuzumab to fluorinated dendrimers. We design synthesis and evaluate main product by using electrophoresis, HPLC and LC–MS techniques. We prepared three-dimensional breast cancer cell culture in bioreactor device. For the cell culture we used MCF-7 cells with Her-2 overexpression to study Trastuzumab-dendrimer-fluorine drug delivery system efficacy. We evaluate efficacy by Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) relaxation time. Results An analytical analysis showed that synthesis of Trastuzumab-dendrimer-fluorine drug delivery system is possible to obtain with a good yield. The results obtained indicated potential of Trastuzumab-dendrimer-fluorine drug delivery system is more efficient than trastuzumab alone. Chromatographic and electrophoretic separations showed that the synthetized conjugates were a Trastuzumab-dendrimer-fluorine drug delivery systems. The hight synthesis efficiency was found. The presence of molecules with lower masses than trastuzumab can have influence on efficiency. Conclusions Trastuzumab-dendrimer-fluorine drug delivery system is a new form of Trastuzumab to treat breast cancer cells in vitro. Due to presence of 19F nuclei the system can be monitored by MRI measurements.

Analysis of Lamiaceae essential oils (EOs) by GC-FID-MS revealed the presence as the major constituents of linalool (16.8%), linalyl acetate (15.7%) in Lavandula angustifolia, menthol (29.0%), menthone (22.7%), menthyl acetate (19.2%) in Mentha x piperita, terpinen-4-ol (27.1%), (E)-sabinene hydrate (12.1%), γ-terpinene (10.0%) in Origanum majorana, α-thujone (19.5%), camphor (19.0%), viridiflorol (13.5%) in Salvia officinalis, thymol (61.9%), p-cymene (10.0%), γ-terpinene (10.0%) in Thymus vulgaris. Based on the MIC and MBC values (0.09–0.78 mg/mL) and ratio MBC/MIC showed that EO from T. vulgaris (TO) had the strong inhibitory and bactericidal effect against multidrug-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. The bacterial cells were total killed by TO at 2MIC concentration after 6 h. The higher concentrations of other EOs were needed to achieve bactericidal effects. The strong bactericidal effect of TO against these bacteria indicates the possibility of topical use of TO but it requires research under clinical conditions.

Interactions occurring between the insect and its host plant are an important aspect of understanding the process of species dispersal and the colonisation of new host plants. Aphid adaptive proces...

Microalgae are freshwater and marine unicellular photosynthetic organisms that utilize sunlight to produce biomass. Due to fast microalgal growth rate and their unique biochemical profiles and potential applications in food and renewable energy industries, the interest in microalgal research is rapidly increasing. Biochemical and genetic engineering have been considered to improve microalgal biomass production but these manipulations also limited microalgal growth. The aim of the study was the biochemical characterization of recently identified microalgal strain Planktochlorella nurekis with elevated cell size and DNA levels compared to wild type strain that was achieved by a safe non-vector approach, namely co-treatment with colchicine and cytochalasin B (CC). A slight increase in growth rate was observed in twelve clones of CC-treated cells. For biochemical profiling, several parameters were considered, namely the content of proteins, amino acids, lipids, fatty acids, β-glucans, chlorophylls, carotenoids, B vitamins and ash. CC-treated cells were characterized by elevated levels of lipids compared to unmodified cells. Moreover, the ratio of carotenoids to chlorophyll a and total antioxidant capacity were slightly increased in CC-treated cells. We suggest that Planktochlorella nurekis with modified DNA levels and improved lipid content can be considered to be used as a dietary supplement and biofuel feedstock.

Simple Summary Due to numerous side effects associated with extensive use of chemical insecticides, there is a need to develop eco-friendly alternative methods for insect pest control. One of these alternatives may be the use of essential oils (EOs). An important aspect of the efficient and safe application of EOs in plant protection is the elucidation of their toxicity mechanisms towards target pests. The present study aimed to determine the effects of Santolina chamaecyparissus (L.) and Tagetes patula (L.) EOs on development and physiology of two aphid species with different feeding specializations. Myzus persicae (Sulzer) is a broad generalist and Rhopalosiphum padi (L.) is a grass specialist. Exposure to the tested EOs limited the aphids’ development and led to induction of oxidative stress within their tissues. Analysis of the physiological parameters also showed that the oligophagous R. padi was more sensitive to EO treatment than the highly polyphagous M. persicae. The results suggest that the tested EOs can affect important biochemical processes within aphid tissues and have potential as eco-friendly aphicides. Abstract This study investigated the toxicity of essential oils (EOs) from Santolina chamaecyparissus (L.) and Tagetes patula (L.) towards the green peach aphid Myzus persicae (Sulzer) and the bird cherry-oat aphid Rhopalosiphum padi (L.). The effects of the EOs on aphid population parameters and levels of biochemical markers of oxidative stress within insect tissues were analyzed. In laboratory bioassays, application of the studied EOs at sublethal concentrations reduced daily fecundity and led to a decrease in the intrinsic rate of natural increase in both aphid species. Treatment with EOs also induced generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) within aphid tissues. The highest levels of superoxide anion and hydrogen peroxide were noted after 24 and 48 h of exposure. Moreover, a significant increase in lipid peroxidation was shown in treated aphids, especially between 48 and 72 h after exposure. The increase was more pronounced after treatment with the essential oil of S. chamaecyparissus, which also exhibited higher aphicidal activity in toxicity tests. The activities of antioxidant enzymes—superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT)—were significantly elevated in both aphid species in response to the tested EOs. The obtained results suggest that oxidative stress evoked by treatment with the studied EOs may be an important factor determining their toxicity towards aphids.

The studies concerned changes in the activities of ornithine decarboxylase (ODC), lysine decarboxylase (LDC) and tyrosine decarboxylase (TyDC) in tissues of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) infested with bird cherry-oat aphid (Rhopalosiphum padi L.). Obtained results showed that the activities of the enzymes were stimulated in the less susceptible wheat Kontesa cv. infested by the aphids. In the case of the more susceptible Tonacja cv., on most occasions a decrease in the enzyme activities occurred. Such responses were especially clear for TyDC in both analysed cvs., and for LDC and ODC in the case of Kontesa cv. Thus it may be concluded that amino acid decarboxylation plays an important part in the biochemical defence developed in wheat tissues in response to R. padi infestation. The changes in the activities of the decarboxylases were dependent on the wheat genotype as well as the duration of the infestation.

Microalgae are freshwater and marine unicellular photosynthetic organisms that utilize sunlight to produce biomass. Due to fast microalgal growth rate and their unique biochemical profiles and potential applications in food and renewable energy industries, the interest in microalgal research is rapidly increasing. Biochemical and genetic engineering have been considered to improve microalgal biomass production but these manipulations also limited microalgal growth. The aim of the study was the biochemical characterization of recently identified microalgal strain Planktochlorella nurekis with elevated cell size and DNA levels compared to wild type strain that was achieved by a safe non-vector approach, namely co-treatment with colchicine and cytochalasin B (CC). A slight increase in growth rate was observed in twelve clones of CC-treated cells. For biochemical profiling, several parameters were considered, namely the content of proteins, amino acids, lipids, fatty acids, &beta, glucans, chlorophylls, carotenoids, B vitamins and ash. CC-treated cells were characterized by elevated levels of lipids compared to unmodified cells. Moreover, the ratio of carotenoids to chlorophyll a and total antioxidant capacity were slightly increased in CC-treated cells. We suggest that Planktochlorella nurekis with modified DNA levels and improved lipid content can be considered to be used as a dietary supplement and biofuel feedstock.

The study was focused on changes in the activities of ornithine decarboxylase (ODC), lysine decarboxylase (LDC) and tyrosine decarboxylase (TyDC) in maize seedlings infested by bird cherry-oat aphid ( Rhopalosiphum padi L.). Obtained results showed that the aphid infestation induced LDC activity strongly within tissues of less aphid-settled maize (Waza cv.) during the first week of the infestation in comparison to the control plants and the activity was suppressed after two weeks. However, TyDC activity fluctuated under the aphid infestation. In relation to the control, the enzyme activity was inhibited on the first day, activated after the first week and reduced again two weeks into the experiment. A significant reduction in ODC activity was also observed in seedlings of aphid-infested maize Waza cv. during the first week. In a more susceptible maize cv. (Zlota Karlowa), an increase in LDC and TyDC activities in relation to the control and a simultaneous decrease in ODC activity were noted after the first day of the infestation. After one week of aphid attack, TyDC activity was induced and ODC was inhibited, whereas after two weeks ODC activity was decreased with a simultaneous increase in LDC activity in the Zlota Karlowa seedlings.

The objective of performed study was aimed at evaluating the antifungal potential of four extract fractions (methanolic, ethyl acetate, alkaloid, and hydrolyzed methanolic) derived from Juglans regia (L.) leaves against pathogenic Candida albicans strains. Furthermore, total phenolics and alkaloid content as well as the antioxidative potential of examined extract fractions were determined. Tested yeasts comprised 140 isolates from diverse biological specimens (oropharyngeal, rectal and vulvovaginal swabs, skin lesions, sputum, urine, and faeces), and one reference strain (C. albicans ATCC 90029). Methanolic extract from walnut leaves characterized by the highest anticandidal activity, the alkaloid fraction possessed a slightly lower antifungal efficacy, while ethyl acetate and hydrolyzed methanolic preparates inhibited the growth rate of examined fungal pathogens in the lowest degree. Additionally, it has been elucidated that all tested strains were susceptible for nystatin and amphotericin B, and only one yeast strain was resistant to flucytosine. On the contrary, the group of azole antimycotics were characterized by reduced effectiveness against the candidal isolates.

The essential oils derived from Asteraceae plants were evaluated for their insecticidal activity towards Myzus persicae (Sulzer) and for their effects on the activity of selected enzymes within aphid tissues. The chemical composition of the essential oils was determined by GC–MS analysis. In laboratory bioassays, the studied oils not only displayed anti-settling activity, but also exerted a notable toxic effect on aphid females. Among the tested essential oils, those from Santolina chamaecyparissus and Achillea millefolium exhibited the strongest toxicities, followed by those from Tanacetum vulgare, Tagetes patula and Artemisia absinthium: the LC50 values after 24 h treatment were 0.34%, 0.34%, 0.47%, 0.61% and 0.69%, respectively. The present results also showed that the essential oils inhibited the activity of the aphid acetylcholinesterase and Na+/K+-ATPase. The enzyme inhibition varied depending on the applied oil and exposure time. Generally, the essential oils with stronger aphicidal activities also exhibited higher inhibitory effects. The activity of glutathione S-transferase in M. persicae was upregulated after treatment with essential oils, especially during the first two days following exposure. The obtained results suggest that essential oils from the studied Asteraceae plants can affect important biochemical processes within aphid tissues and may be considered as potent biopesticides in green peach aphid control.

One of the earliest responses of plants to insects' attack is generation of reactive oxygen species. However, the elevated level of ROS can elicit oxidative burst within plant tissues, and plants employ antioxidant systems against these radicals. Due to their chemical structures, polyphenols are able to diminish the level of ROS. Thus, we investigated the role of phenolic compounds in oxidative stress within winter triticale caused by Sitobion avenae and Oulema melanopus. It was found, that infestation by insects induced a high increase in the content of hydrogen peroxide and superoxide anion radical within resistant Lamberto cv. 24 hpi, whereas in sensitive Marko cv., an increase in H2O2 content was found within two days of aphid feeding. Moreover, resistant plants showed earlier and much greater induction of l-phenylalanine and l-tyrosine ammonia lyases and chalcone synthase activities, as well as accumulation of phenolic compounds in response to insect feeding than susceptible Marko. On the other hand, strong positive influence of hydrogen peroxide and superoxide radical contents on chalcone synthase activity and furthermore flavonoid biosynthesis was detected in the susceptible cultivar. Negative relationships between level of o-coumaric acid or flavonoid compounds and content of hydrogen peroxide or superoxide radical suggest their antioxidant capacity. Luteolin and o-coumaric acid may attend in scavenging of hydrogen peroxide, whereas quercetin, apigenin and (+)-catechin probably participate in reduction of superoxide anion radical content.

The mechanism of the toxicity of plant lectins is not clearly understood. The insecticidal activity of plant lectins results from effects on insect metabolism by interfering with gut enzymatic function. Thus, a greater understanding of the mechanisms of plant lectin toxicity in insects is required. This study reports the effects of dietary ingestion of the glucose-mannose binding lectin Concanavaline A (Con A) on bird cherry-oat aphid (Rhopalosiphum padi L.) enzymes involved in protein digestion [aminopeptidase N and cathepsin L (CatL)], sugar (α- and β-glucosidases), and phosphorus (alkaline and acid phosphatase) metabolism. An aphid bioassay test using artificial diets containing Con A is also presented. An increase in the concentration of Con A generally suppressed the activity of glucosidases and phosphatases, and increased the activity of CatL in apterae morphs. Bird cherry-oat aphid performance was affected by the presence of Con A in artificial diets. The lectin added to the liquid diet increased t...

The influence of naturally-occurring phenolic acid mixtures from selected plants was tested against the grain aphid (Sitobion avenae F.). Phenolic acids were extracted from the leaves of black currant (Ribes nigrum L.), sour cherry (Prunus cerasus L.) and walnut (Juglans regia L.), as well as from the green husks of walnut. The highest content of total phenolic acids and individual compounds such as p-hydroxybenzoic, p-coumaric, chlorogenic and vanillic acids were determined in J. regia. Ferulic and tannic acids were found only in J. regia. In laboratory bioassays, the phenolic acids extracted from plants prolonged the aphid prereproductive period by 1.5–3.0 days and reduced daily fecundity by 1–1.5 offspring. The strongest effects were observed after application of phenolic acids from the leaves and green husks of J. regia. The grain aphid used glutathione S-transferase (GST), peroxidase (POD) and polyphenol oxidase (PPO) in response to the application of plant phenolic acids. An increase in aphid GST activity was found in response to treatment with all extracts. Induction of PPO and POD was shown 24 h after the application of phenolic acids mixture from leaves of walnut; inhibition was observed after 48 and 168 h in response to treatment with both extracts of walnut. An inverse relationship between the POD and PPO activity of the aphids was found 24 h after application of the black currant and sour cherry phenolic acids. After 168 h, the activities of these enzymes were higher in treated aphids compared to unsprayed insects. Mixtures of phenolic acids naturally occurring in phenol-rich plants might be used as biopesticides to control the grain aphid as a part of an integrated pest management programme.

The effect of methyl jasmonate (MJ) vapors on content of phenolic compounds: free phenolic acids, total quercetin, and total phenolics in etiolated buckwheat seedlings were studied. The data presented show that low concentration of MJ (10-8 M) had no influence on trans-cinnamic acid (CA), but stimulated the accumulation of chlorogenic acid in hypocotyls and cotyledons of buckwheat seedlings. A moderate dose of MJ (10-6 M) did not change the level of chlorogenic acid in the hypocotyls and cotyledons, but CA synthesis was promoted in cotyledons, whereas in hypocotyls no significant effect was found. Highest concentration of MJ (10-4 M) caused small decline of CA in hypocotyls, but large stimulation of the acid production in cotyledons was noted. MJ had stimulatory effect on caffeic acid forming, but inhibited synthesis of vanillic acid in hypocotyls and cotyledons. Lowest concentration of MJ (10-8 M) elicited accumulation of quercetin glycosides in both studied tissues of buckwheat seedlings, however at higher doses (10-8 and 10-4 M) did not affect the flavonol level. The obtained results suggest that nonequivalent influence of methyl jasmonate on the phenolics composition can be a result of various mechanisms of MJ uptake, transforming and/or its translocation in buckwheat hypocotyls and cotyledons. Decline of anthocyanins level in buckwheat hypocotyls caused by MJ cannot be explained by enhanced accumulation of quercetin glycosides or free phenolic acids, but probably by synthesis of other unknown phenolic compounds.

Summary The aim of the study was to determine the effects of such flavonoids as: apigenin, luteolin, quercetin, mirycetin, (+)-catechin and (-)-epicatechin on the behavior of wingless females and larvae of bird cherry-oat aphid (Rhopalosiphum padi L.) during the colonization of winter wheat seedlings. All the tested compounds showed deterrence activity against thebird cherry-oat aphid morphs. Significant differences in influence of tested flawonoids on behavior of wingless females and larvae were observed. Generally, wingless females were more susceptible than larvae. (-)-Epicatechin and quercetin were the most effective in relation to the wingless females and apigenin and (+)-catechin strongest modified larvae colonization behavior.

The purpose of this report was to evaluate the expression patterns of selected glutathione transferase genes (gst1, gst18, gst23 and gst24) in the tissues of two maize (Zea mays L.) varieties (relatively resistant Ambrozja and susceptible Tasty Sweet) that were colonized with oligophagous bird cherry-oat aphid (Rhopalosiphum padi L.) or monophagous grain aphid (Sitobion avenae L.). Simultaneously, insect-triggered generation of superoxide anion radicals (O2 •−) in infested Z. mays plants was monitored. Quantified parameters were measured at 1, 2, 4, 8, 24, 48 and 72 h post-initial aphid infestation (hpi) in relation to the non-infested control seedlings. Significant increases in gst transcript amounts were recorded in aphid-stressed plants in comparison to the control seedlings. Maximal enhancement in the expression of the gst genes in aphid-attacked maize plants was found at 8 hpi (gst23) or 24 hpi (gst1, gst18 and gst24) compared to the control. Investigated Z. mays cultivars formed excessive superoxide anion radicals in response to insect treatments, and the highest overproduction of O2 •− was noted 4 or 8 h after infestation, depending on the aphid treatment and maize genotype. Importantly, the Ambrozja variety could be characterized as having more profound increments in the levels of gst transcript abundance and O2 •− generation in comparison with the Tasty Sweet genotype.

Five food coefficients were used to evaluate resistance of winter triticale cultivars against grain aphid Sitobion avenae (Fabr.). On the basis of the results of biochemical analysis the following coefficients were calculated: soluble carbohydrates–total nitrogen, soluble carbohydrates–free amino acids, soluble carbohydrates–protein amino acids, nonprotein amino acids–protein amino acids, nonprotein amino acids–free protein amino acids. The results showed that the values of all coefficients for the ‘Lasko’ cultivar, which is resistant to S. avenae, were higher than those of the susceptible ‘Grado’ cultivar. Applied tests of natural resistance of winter triticale, based on biochemical properties of the plants, revealed considerable variability of resistance of both cultivars to grain aphid. Thus, the tests may be very useful for preliminary selection of newly introduced strains and cultivars of winter triticale in respect of their resistance to grain aphid. The method may be also applied for a quick evaluation of new genetically engineered products and the culture of highly aphid-resistant plants.

Amino acid level is well known indicator of plant resistance to aphids. Our earlier studies showed that grain aphid (Sitobion avenae F.) infestation caused changes in the activity of the enzymes connected with amino acid biosynthesis and the transformation to defensive secondary metabolites within triticale tissues. However, there are not data on the significance of aminotransferases in these processes. The aim of our study was the quantification of changes in the activity of aspartate aminotransferase (AspAT) and alanine aminotransferase (AlaAT) in winter triticale seedlings caused by the feeding of the grain aphid. The study results showed that aphid feeding caused an increase in AlaAT activity and a decrease in AspAT activity within tissues of the triticale. The induced mechanisms of the triticale resistance to the grain aphid are discussed.

The objectives of this study were to elucidate the impact of bird cherry-oat aphid (Rhopalosiphum padi L.) feeding on functioning of the proteolytic machinery in bird cherry leaves. Biochemical analyses proved that R. padi feeding in tissues of primary host stimulated activity of the two major fractions of proteinases (extracted at the optimal pH values: 5.0 and 7.0). Additionally, it has been demonstrated that aphids' feeding on bird cherry led to a decline in levels of albumins and globulins (main protein fractions in P. padus leaves). The opposite tendency, regarding the amounts of these protein fractions was ascertained at the phase of disappearance of R. padi population on tested shoots. Furthermore, it is reported that an increase in activity of the analysed enzymes and a decline in the content of tested protein fractions, were proportional to density of aphid individuals developing on P. padus side shoots. It is hypothesized that long-term R. padi feeding may lead to intensifying the catabolic processing of proteins by the activated proteolytic machinery in bird cherry leaves. The multi-level biological functions of endogenous plant proteinases and their significance in triggering the defense reactions in aphid-infested plant tissues are discussed.

Changes in lysine decarboxylase (LDC) activity caused by Sitobion avenae (F.) feeding on two winter triticale cultivars (cvs) were studied. The aphid fecundity and values of intrinsic rate of natural increase showed that cv Witon was less susceptible to S. avenae than cv Tornado. The grain aphid feeding on more susceptible triticale caused a decrease in the LDC activity, with exceptions of root tissues after two weeks of the feeding. In case of less susceptible cv Witon reduction of the LDC activity was observed only during initial period of S. avenae feeding. Later the aphid infestation induced activity of the LDC within tissues of cv Witon.

Guelder rose (Viburnum opulus L.) is known for its health benefits. V. opulus contains phenolic compounds (flavonoids and phenolic acids), a group of plant metabolites with wide biological activities. They are good sources of natural antioxidants in human diets owing to their prevention of the oxidative damage responsible for many diseases. In recent years, observations have shown that an increase in temperature can change the quality of plant tissues. So far, little research has addressed the problem of the common impact of temperature and place of occurrence. Towards a better understanding of phenolics concentration that could indicate their potentials as therapeutic agents and towards predicting and controlling the quality of medicinal plants, the aim of this study was to compare phenolic acids and flavonoids content in the leaves of cultivation and wild collection V. opulus, and to examine the impacts of temperature and place of occurrence on their content and composition. Total phenolics were determined using the spectrophotometric method. Phenolic composition of V. opulus was determined using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The following hydroxybenzoic acids there were identified: gallic, p-hydroxybenzoic, syringic, salicylic, benzoic, as well as hydroxycinnamic acids: chlorogenic, caffeic, p-coumaric, ferulic, o-coumaric and t-cinnamic. The analysis of extracts from V. opulus leaves has indicated the presence of the following flavonoids: flavanols: (+)-catechin and (−)-epicatechin; flavonols: quercetin, rutin, kaempferol, myricetin; and flavones: luteolin, apigenin and chrysin. The dominant phenolic acids were p-coumaric and gallic acids. The major flavonoids found in V. opulus leaves were myricetin and kaempferol. Temperature and plant location affected the concentration of tested phenolic compounds. The present study shows the potential of naturally grown and wild V. opulus for the human.