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This exploratory study builds upon extant reading development studies by identifying discrete groups based on reading comprehension trajectories across first grade. The main goal of this study was to enhance the field's understanding of early reading comprehension development and its underlying subcomponent skills, with the intent of better understanding the development of comprehension in students who display risk for reading difficulties and disabilities. A sample of first-grade readers (N = 314) were assessed at three timepoints across the first-grade year. These data were utilized to derive empirical latent classes based on reading comprehension performance across the first-grade year. Reading subcomponent skill assessments (phonological awareness, word reading, decoding, linguistic comprehension, and reading fluency), measured in the fall of first grade, were compared across latent classes to examine how they related to growth across the first-grade year. Results suggest that there were four distinct latent classes with differential reading comprehension development, each of which could also be distinguished by the subskill assessments. These findings are presented within the context of the broader reading research base, and implications for practice are discussed.

The Autism Impact Measure is a caregiver-reported, behaviorally based measure designed to assess both frequency and functional impact of core ASD symptoms in children. This study used confirmatory factor analysis to determine if the factor structure of the AIM (Repetitive Behavior, Communication, Atypical Behavior, Social Reciprocity, and Peer Interaction), previously reported by Mazurek et al. (Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 50: 2307-2319, 2020), was supported in a large (n = 611), independent sample. The sample was diverse in age (2-16 years) and IQ (M = 76.6, SD = 22.7), but was composed of approximately 80% males. There were some nuanced differences between this study and Mazurek et al. (Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 50: 2307-2319, 2020), but findings generally provided further evidence supporting the psychometric properties of the AIM.

Children with intellectual and developmental disabilities engage in higher rates of challenging behavior (CB) than their typically developing peers. Effective and sustainable intervention and supports designed to reduce CB, as well as promote the development of positive, prosocial behavior, are urgently needed. One approach to targeting CB is providing parents with education and support to serve as the agents of behavior change. The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of a parent education (PE) program focused on the principles of applied behavior analysis delivered using the Project ECHO service delivery model. Results demonstrate positive outcomes in parents' senses of competency and empowerment. In addition, parents identified the intervention as acceptable, suggesting this model as a highly effective and sustainable PE model for this population.

This study evaluated the emergent literacy profiles of preschool Spanish-speaking children. Participants included 440 children in dual-language classrooms who were assessed in English and Spanish at the beginning and end of their preschool year. Research Findings: Through latent profile analysis, conducted with fall data, four empirically derived emergent literacy profiles emerged. Further analyses were conducted to determine if there were differential relations between the literacy profiles and spring early reading measures of alphabet knowledge and oral language, measures that are typically used to evaluate kindergarten readiness for literacy instruction. Practice or Policy: Results highlight the heterogeneous nature of emergent literacy development in Spanish-speaking children and demonstrate the need for individualized literacy instruction during the preschool years.

The reading difficulties of individuals with autism spectrum disorders have been established in the literature, with particular attention drawn toward reading comprehension difficulties. Recent papers have highlighted the heterogeneous nature of reading abilities in this population by utilizing statistical methods that allow for investigations of unique reading profiles. This article extends this literature by investigating reading profiles longitudinally, to investigate the stability of reader profiles across time. Latent profile and transition analyses were conducted to establish categorically distinct reading profiles at two time points, 30 months apart. This study also examined whether age and autism symptom severity were related to the profiles at each time point. Finally, transitions between profiles at each time point were identified. Age did not predict profile membership, but there were significant differences in symptom severity that were largely stable over time. Results indicate that heterogeneous reading profiles exist within the autism population, ranging from average reading ability to severe difficulties across different reading subskills. The data from this study demonstrate that reading profiles of children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders shift when examined across time.

Difficulties with reading development have been well documented in samples of children with autism spectrum disorders. This study utilized a state-level early literacy dataset of kindergarten students educationally diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (N = 616) to investigate the development of critical early reading skills across the kindergarten year. The study employed latent profile analysis and latent transition analysis to empirically derive profiles of early readers at kindergarten entry and the end of kindergarten. Results demonstrate the heterogenous nature of early reading skills for young school-aged students with autism spectrum disorder. Results have important implications for the early instruction and intervention of early reading for young children with autism spectrum disorder.

This study examined the relations between and predictive power of three important subcomponents skills of reading comprehension: decoding, listening comprehension, and reading fluency. Through a series of structural equation models, we examine the relations within a full sample of first grade students at the beginning of the year (N = 290). Next, we conducted analyses to determine if differential relations exist between the variables in students who are identified as at-risk for reading failure, and potentially reading disability (n = 141) and those who are not (n = 149). Results indicate that in early first grade, the relations between the subcomponent skills are different dependent upon risk status. For the full sample, fluency was the strongest predictor of reading comprehension, followed by decoding and listening comprehension. When the sample was split based on early reading skills at the beginning of first grade, for the not at-risk students, fluency, decoding, and listening comprehension each made individual contributions to reading comprehension. For the at-risk students, decoding was only significantly related to reading comprehension via fluency; listening comprehension did not significantly predict reading comprehension for this subsample. The findings are discussed and related to implications for the development and implementation of early reading interventions for students who are identified as having reading difficulties and potentially reading disability.

Background and aimsExtant research indicates that children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) without an intellectual disability (ID) often experience difficulty comprehending written texts that is unexpected in comparison with their cognitive abilities. This study investigated the development of two key skills, narrative and inference abilities, that support higher level text comprehension and their relation to lexical-semantic knowledge, ASD symptomatology, and age. Three questions were addressed: 1.) What was the nature of narrative and inference skill development over time? 2.) What was the relation between narrative or inference development and lexical-semantic knowledge, ASD symptomatology, and age? 3.) Did initial narrative and inferencing skills, and the development of these skills, predict reading comprehension outcomes? Methods: Data from 81 children and adolescents with ASD without ID (FIQ ≥ 75) between the ages of 8-16-years-old at timepoint 1 were collected at 15-month intervals across three timepoints. ASD symptomatology was assessed with the ADOS-2. Standardized narrative retelling, inference, reading comprehension, lexical-semantic knowledge and cognitive assessments were administered. Latent growth curve models were conducted to examine narrative and inference skill development, and conditional growth models were fit to examine the relation between growth trajectories and covariates (lexical-semantic knowledge, ASD symptomatology, age) as well as with the reading comprehension distal outcome.ResultsNarrative retelling skills followed a linear trajectory of growth and were a relative strength in this sample, while inference skills were well below average and declined over time relative to age-normed standard scores. Lexical-semantic knowledge explained significant heterogeneity in initial narrative and inference skills, whereas ASD symptomatology was only related to initial narrative retelling abilities and age was only related to initial inference abilities. Timepoint 3 reading comprehension skill (in the below average range) was significantly explained by initial narrative retelling and inference abilities.ConclusionsThe results of this study indicate that narrative retelling and inference skills are important for successful reading comprehension for individuals with ASD without ID and that lexical-semantic knowledge underpins these skills. Furthermore, the observation that ASD symptom severity was associated with narrative retelling skills is consistent with the hypothesis that problems in narrative reading skills are associated with the autism phenotype. Finally, inference skill was a particular challenge for individuals in this sample, although age was positively associated with better performance on the assessment.Implications: These findings suggest that narrative and inference skills, in addition to lexical-semantic knowledge, are important to target beginning in elementary grades to improve reading comprehension outcomes for children and adolescents with ASD without ID.

The purpose of the current study was to determine students' early reading profiles at the beginning and end of kindergarten using existing school-based measures with a sample of Spanish speaking, Latinx students. Using latent profile analysis, a multivariate analytic technique that empirically identifies profiles based on student responses to multiple measures, students' performance was compiled using typical universal screening measures of reading, a formal measure of English language development, and information regarding referral for special education evaluation and grade retention. At the beginning of the year, students demonstrating greater English proficiency also had increased ability on initial sound fluency and letter naming fluency tasks in English. By the end of the year, students demonstrating continued deficits in early literacy skills (phoneme segmentation fluency, letter naming, and nonsense word fluency) included students referred for special education or grade level retention than students who demonstrated greater proficiency in these skill areas. Recommendations for research and school-based practices are provided.

The reading difficulties of individuals with autism spectrum disorders have been established in the literature, with particular attention drawn toward reading comprehension difficulties. Recent papers have highlighted the heterogeneous nature of reading abilities in this population by utilizing statistical methods that allow for investigations of unique reading profiles. This article extends this literature by investigating reading profiles longitudinally, to investigate the stability of reader profiles across time. Latent profile and transition analyses were conducted to establish categorically distinct reading profiles at two time points, 30 months apart. This study also examined whether age and autism symptom severity were related to the profiles at each time point. Finally, transitions between profiles at each time point were identified. Age did not predict profile membership, but there were significant differences in symptom severity that were largely stable over time. Results indicate that heterogeneous reading profiles exist within the autism population, ranging from average reading ability to severe difficulties across different reading subskills. The data from this study demonstrate that reading profiles of children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders shift when examined across time.

A dearth of literature exists on first-year transfer student interventions, which makes it difficult to determine whether there are transfer student subgroups that struggle more than others. This study used a latent class analysis to examine whether meaningful subgroups of transfer students emerged based on their response patterns to measures of academic and social adjustment. Results identified four subgroups and showed participants in a first-year transfer student course more likely to be report positive adjustment and had the smallest drop in GPA. Furthermore, STEM majors were most likely to belong to the subgroup with lower adjustment. This study is one of the first to use a latent class analysis to identify transfer student subgroups and provide empirical support for first-year transfer student program interventions at a selective research-intensive public university.

Reading and writing are distinct skill areas that influence each other across development. Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are noted to exhibit challenges in both skill areas, though relatively few studies have examined relationships between reading and writing skills. This study adopted a reading-to-writing framework to examine if school-age children differ in their narrative writing performance based on their categorically heterogeneous, empirically derived latent reading profiles. Sixty-four school-age (10-18 years old) children with ASD without co-occurring intellectual or severe communication difficulties completed a battery of reading and writing assessments, and reading profiles were examined using latent profile analysis with narrative writing skills, ASD symptom severity, and age included as auxiliary outcome variables. "Average" readers demonstrated significantly higher narrative writing performance compared to "Below Average/Intact Receptive Vocabulary," "Comprehension Disturbance," and "Global Disturbance" readers. Subgroups of readers with reading difficulties did not significantly differ on writing outcomes. While findings support that stronger readers appeared to be also stronger writers, questions remain about differences in the writing skills of individuals with ASD with specific or broad reading difficulties. Implications for researchers and practitioners are discussed regarding the need for continued examination into the reading and writing abilities of children with ASD.

Many children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) struggle with reading comprehension. Linguistic comprehension is an important predictor of reading comprehension, especially as children progress through elementary school and later grades. Yet, there is a dearth of research examining longitudinal relations between linguistic comprehensions in school-age children with ASD compared to typically-developing peers (TD). This study compared the developmental trajectories of linguistic and reading comprehension in samples of children with ASD and age-matched TD peers. Both groups were administered measures of linguistic and reading comprehension multiple times over a 30-month period. Latent growth curve modeling demonstrated children with ASD performed at significantly lower levels on both measures at the first timepoint and these deficits persisted across time. Children with ASD exhibited growth in both skills comparable to their TD peers, but this was not sufficient to enable them to eventually achieve at a level similar to the TD group. Due to the wide age range of the sample, age was controlled and displayed significant effects. Findings suggest linguistic comprehension skills are related to reading comprehension in children with ASD, similar to TD peers. Further, intervention in linguistic comprehension skills for children with ASD should begin early and there may be a finite window in which these skills are malleable, in terms of improving reading comprehension skills. Autism Res 2018, 11: 624-635. © 2017 International Society for Autism Research, Wiley Periodicals, Inc. LAY SUMMARY:There is relatively little research concerning reading comprehension development in children with ASD and how they compare to TD peers. This study found children with ASD began at lower achievement levels of linguistic comprehension and reading comprehension than TD peers, but the skills developed at a similar rate. Intervening early and raising initial levels of linguistic and reading comprehension may enable children with ASD to perform similarly to TD peers over time.

Deficits in reading comprehension have been well documented in individuals with autism. Researchers have begun to identify predictors of reading comprehension; we sought to add to this knowledge base by investigating the role of text reading fluency in the prediction of reading comprehension in a sample of individuals with higher functioning autism (HFASD). A comprehensive reading battery was administered to students with HFASD (N = 68) and age- matched typically developing (TD) students (N = 38). Significant differences were detected between the HFASD and TD samples on every reading measure, favoring the TD sample. Structural Equation Models with the HFASD indicates that text reading fluency significantly predicts reading comprehension above and beyond the contribution of other reading variables which have been shown to be significant predictors in previous studies. This finding has important implications for the treatment of reading deficits in individuals with HFASD.

The goal of this study was to identify unique profiles of readers in a sample of 8-16 year olds with higher functioning autism spectrum disorders (HFASD) and examine the profiles in relation to ASD symptom severity. Eighty-one students were assessed utilizing a comprehensive reading battery that included basic word reading, language, and comprehension. Using Latent Profile Analysis, four empirically distinct profiles of readers emerged. Next, using the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule, Second Edition (Lord et al., Autism diagnostic observation schedule, 2nd edn, Western Psychological Services, Torrance, CA, 2012), analyses were conducted to determine if significant differences existed between profiles as a result of ASD symptomatology. Findings demonstrate the heterogeneous nature of reading profiles in students with HFASD and significant differences between the reading profiles and ASD symptom severity.

Research with English monolinguals has identified key subskills of reading comprehension that can differentiate subgroups of readers. There remains a dearth of research examining these subskills in Spanish-speaking bilingual students, and few studies have identified subgroups of readers whose home language is Spanish. This study used latent profile analysis to identify three distinct reader profiles of Spanish-speaking bilingual students based on Spanish and English word reading and vocabulary measures and examined profile differences in Spanish and English reading comprehension. The profiles were primarily distinguished by Spanish measures and were labeled "balanced Spanish and English," "average English/low Spanish expressive Language," and "English dominant." All three profiles scored significantly differently in Spanish reading comprehension. The balanced Spanish and English profile scored higher than the English-dominant profile in English reading comprehension. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

This longitudinal study used latent growth curve modeling to investigate English literacy development in a sample of Spanish-speaking language minority students from third through eighth grade. This study also compared the sample's literacy development to the entire population of California students using state standardized test data. Second, this study examined the contributions of a variety of bilingual measures of kindergarten letter knowledge, phonological awareness, word reading, and vocabulary to literacy development. Results demonstrated the present sample scored below average in literacy compared to the overall population of California students across years, but made slight gains to narrow the achievement gap. The greatest gains were obtained between fourth and fifth grade, but plateaued thereafter. Results concerning the second research questions showed that the third grade literacy intercept was predicted by kindergarten English letter knowledge, Spanish onset, Spanish word reading, and English vocabulary. However, English literacy development through eighth grade was only predicted by kindergarten English and Spanish vocabulary. Findings support arguments for educational efforts to target oral language instruction for these students in early elementary and instruction in both languages may provide the greatest benefit. Instructional implications are discussed.

This study utilized latent class analysis (LCA) to identify 5 discernible profiles of Latino children's (N = 1,253) social-emotional, physical, and cognitive school readiness at the time of kindergarten entry. In addition, a growth mixture modeling (GMM) approach was used to identify 3 unique literacy achievement trajectories, across Grades 2-5, for these students. A latent transition analysis (LTA) approach was used to examine how Latino children's readiness profiles at kindergarten entry were related to longitudinal literacy achievement trajectories in Grades 2-5. Results provided evidence that Latino students enter kindergarten with discernible readiness profiles and that these profiles predicted longitudinal literacy achievement trajectories through Grade 5. Specifically, children with higher levels of readiness at kindergarten entry had greater probabilities of following favorable literacy achievement patterns than those students who were rated with lower levels of readiness. Results also provided evidence suggesting that Latino children's cognitive readiness levels were particularly predictive of longitudinal literacy achievement patterns.

The Working Memory Rating Scale (WMRS) was designed as a behavioral rating tool to assist teachers in identifying students at risk of working memory difficulties. The instrument was originally normed on 417 monolingual English-speaking children from the United Kingdom. The purpose of this study was to test the reliability and validity of the WMRS on 459 first- to third-grade Spanish-speaking English Language Learners. Results indicated the one-factor model demonstrated adequate fit to the data. High convergent validity emerged with the Conners' rating scale, but weak correlations occurred with achievement, vocabulary, phonological, short-term memory, and working memory measures. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.

This study examined the dimensionality and measurement invariance of the Kindergarten Student Entrance Profile (KSEP), a brief screening tool designed for use as a universal school readiness assessment. Teachers rated the readiness of 10,031 children during the first month of kindergarten in four ethnically diverse, medium-sized school districts in central California. From the total sample, two random, independent subsamples were identified. First, S1 (n = 5,050) was utilized to conduct a CFA. Results yielded evidence supporting a two-factor structure encompassing children's social-emotional and cognitive readiness that is similar to previous studies examining the KSEP with less diverse student samples. Next, a series of confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) were conducted using S2 (n = 4,981) to replicate the structure identified in the first CFA with an independent subsample and to test the measurement invariance of the KSEP across two sets of categorical variables: (a) gender and (b) parent education levels. Results from both sets of CFAs showed adequate fit to the two-factor structure, with the KSEP exhibiting measurement invariance across both gender and parent education levels. The results of this study provide additional psychometric evidence supporting the validity of the KSEP as a universal-level school readiness screener. Practical implications are also discussed.

Measurement invariance, or the degree to which an instrument measures constructs consistently across subgroups, is critical for appropriate interpretations of measures. Given sex differences in the phenotypic and clinical presentation of autism spectrum disorder (ASD), it is particularly important to examine measurement invariance in autism instruments to ensure that ASD measures are not biased toward the more common male ASD phenotype. This study represents an important preliminary investigation evaluating the measurement equivalence of the Autism Impact Measure (AIM) across children and adolescents with ASD. The results indicated that the AIM demonstrated measurement invariance at the configural, metric, and scalar levels across sex in all five domains, including Repetitive Behavior, Communication, Atypical Behavior, Social Reciprocity, and Peer Interaction. These results suggest that ASD core symptoms assessed by the AIM were similar among male and female groups. In addition, the latent means for all five factors were not statistically significantly different across sex groups, revealing no systematic differences on any of the AIM subscales for males and females. Overall, this study showed that the AIM detects core ASD symptoms across all five areas equivalently in males and females and is not biased toward males with ASD. Lay Summary: There is increasing interest in how the characteristics of ASD present in girls and boys with ASD. This study was conducted to evaluate whether the Autism Impact Measure (AIM) assesses ASD symptoms sufficiently in both boys and girls with ASD. In this study, we found that the AIM captured core ASD symptoms equivalently in boys and girls with ASD. Specifically, the domains assessed by the AIM were similar among boys and girls across all areas, including Repetitive Behavior, Communication, Atypical Behavior, Social Reciprocity, and Peer Interaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]