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The research literature suggests that institutions for children left without parental care do not provide environments that adequately promote children’s development, and that characteristics of orphanages should be considered as an environmental factor influencing developmental difficulties in children living in institutions and later in post-institutional families. This study aimed to analyze the structural characteristics of the caregiving environment in two St. Petersburg (RF) orphanages—baby homes for children from birth to 4–5 years of age (BH A and BH B), and the maintenance of the structural interventions that were implemented in BH A during 2000-05 (The St. Petersburg–USA Orphanage Research Team, 2008). Both institutions belong to the Ministry of Health and are managed under the same medical regulations, providing about the same quality of medical care and nutrition. The results of the study show that the number of children living in each ward (4 to 6 in BH A and 5 to 8 in BH B), and the child–caregiver ratio (2 to 3 for BH A and 2.5 to 4 for BH B) in the two baby homes are about the same, while BH A have fewer staff members who are assigned to the ward (6–8 vs. 9–14 in BH B). The ward assistant teachers in BH A are assigned as the primary caregivers, working 5 days a week (39 hrs) vs. about 25 hrs a week for assistant teachers in BH B. While living in the baby home, children in BH A are integrated by age and disability (vs. segregation by age and partial disability integration in BH B), and are assigned to one ward (meaning the same caregivers, peers, rooms, etc.), while in BH B the children change their ward when they reach a certain age or developmental milestone (number of wards children experienced M(SD) = 1.1 (0.2) in BH A and 2.7 (1.1) in BH B). Our results support the hypothesis that the structural characteristics of institutional environment in the two baby homes are different, and that in comparison with BH B, the structural characteristics of BH A show more caregiving stability and consistency. The results also show that the interventions implemented in BH A within the St. Petersburg–USA Orphanage Research Project were maintained for many years after the project was finished. The specific features of an institutional caregiving environment should be taken into consideration in studies of the mental health and bio-behavioral development of children in institutions and postinstitutional families.

Twice-exceptionality (2e), broadly defined as the co-occurrence of a gift or talent and a disability, has been a part of the educational lexicon since the 1990s, although its empirical backing is limited. We conducted a comprehensive review of the empirical literature on 2e and created a simulation study of 2e. For the latter, we constructed population distribution functions that represent indicators of ability using a range of correlations and identification criteria guided by the reviewed literature. We observed the theoretical occurrence of 2e, even at its most relaxed definitions, to be much rarer than prevailing literature implies (probability = 0.148). As correlations and factor loadings increase, the prevalence estimates of 2e drop considerably. Our results demonstrated the need for a more informed, standardized, and quantifiable approach to the identification of individuals with 2e.

Some children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) demonstrate unusual islets of abilities or "splinter skills" that represent relative strengths in their development. In this paper we present a clinical case of an 11-year-old Russian boy with ASD who spontaneously acquired the English language. While the child demonstrated language deficits in both English and Russian, the discrepancy between the languages was paradoxical given the lack of exposure to English language. This case study brings into question the importance of a language environment for children with ASD. Alternative pathway to language acquisition is discussed. We hypothesize that that incidental second language acquisition in children with ASD resulting from media exposure could become more frequent with the availability of the Internet.

Purpose: To assess strengths and weaknesses of the reading level (RL) match approach and its potential to generate insights regarding the cognitive foundations of reading ability and disability. Method: We applied RL-match design to a sample of 2nd-6th graders reading a consistent orthography, Russian, using an "extreme phenotype" approach. Readers with suspected specific reading disability (sSRD, n = 538) and highperforming readers (HPR; n = 806) were matched via propensity Scores, using IQ and each of the alternatives: accuracy of word decoding, pseudoword decoding, word unitization, or paragraph reading fluency. In each case, two groups were compared on the remaining literacy tasks as well as phonological processing, orthographic processing, and rapid serial naming. Results: When matched on word or pseudoword decoding (288 and 313 pairs, respectively), readers with sSRD and HPR differed on all remaining indicators. When matched on word unitization (173 pairs), the differences disappeared or had substantially diminished effect sizes. When matched on paragraph reading fluency (57 pairs), no significant differences remained. Thus, none of the componential skills appeared antecedent to the observed difficulties assessed via the number of correctly orally read words per minute. However, certain inherent limitations of RL-match design preclude us from considering this to be a definitive outcome.

To learn to read, the brain must repurpose neural systems for oral language and visual processing to mediate written language. We begin with a description of computational models for how alphabetic written language is processed. Next, we explain the roles of a dorsal sublexical system in the brain that relates print and speech, a ventral lexical system that develops the visual expertise for rapid orthographic processing at the word level, and the role of cognitive control networks that regulate attentional processes as children read. We then use studies of children, adult illiterates learning to read, and studies of poor readers involved in intervention, to demonstrate the plasticity of these neural networks in development and in relation to instruction. We provide a brief overview of the rapid increase in the field's understanding and technology for assessing genetic influence on reading. Family studies of twins have shown that reading skills are heritable, and molecular genetic studies have identified numerous regions of the genome that may harbor candidate genes for the heritability of reading. In selected families, reading impairment has been associated with major genetic effects, despite individual gene contributions across the broader population that appear to be small. Neural and genetic studies do not prescribe how children should be taught to read, but these studies have underscored the critical role of early intervention and ongoing support. These studies also have highlighted how structured instruction that facilitates access to the sublexical components of words is a critical part of training the brain to read.

Digital media is becoming increasingly prevalent in households and classroom settings lowering the age of first exposure to technology; however, little is known about how children experience digital media and how their experiences relate to learning and social engagement. In this case study, we followed a 28-month-old boy in a naturalistic setting for 5 weeks, videotaping the process of his interactions with the iPad. Using a combination of video coding, screen recordings, and a formal academic assessment we evaluated the effects of digital media on specific learning outcomes, child affective states associated with gains in digital literacy, and the role of social interaction in the process of digital media exposure. We found that the number of errors predicted a significant amount of the variance in the child's levels of frustration, attentiveness, help-seeking behaviors, and persistence. Two main types of affect, confusion and attentiveness, predicted gains in his iPad proficiency, providing important insights into the role of emotions in digital learning. With increased levels of iPad proficiency, we observed an inconsistent pattern of child social engagement. This study is the first, to our knowledge, to use a combination of qualitative observation data, standardized assessment, and quantitative analysis of a child's behavior in the process of digital literacy learning.

In Zambia, as well as many other African and non-Western cultures, the extent and kind of children's chores may contribute to their learning, yet often also conflict with their schooling. In the moderation analysis we present in this manuscript, we aimed to explore the interactive effects of schooling and chores on children's mathematics performance at different levels of math knowledge and computational skill, taking into account how the assessment questions were presented. The sample consisted of 1,535 children (719 girls) living in rural and peri-urban communities in Zambia who were administered the Zambia Achievement Test (ZAT). We categorized the 60 items of the ZAT by their targeted content knowledge, sizes of the numbers involved, and forms of representation. Our results showed that chores supported the development of very basic mathematics skills and knowledge in children who had less schooling, but also significantly lowered the performance of students who were in school once their school attendance rose above certain levels. Moreover, this interaction between chores and school attendance was observed predominantly in girls, with a lesser effect of chores on boys., Author(s): Mei Tan [sup.1] , Nan Li [sup.1] , Joseph W. Pirozzolo [sup.1] [sup.2] , David Bolden [sup.3] , Florence Chamvu, Jacqueline Jere-Folotiya, Bestern Kaani, Kalima Kalima, Sophie Kasonde N'gandu, [...]

While the predictive power of genetic information is not yet strong enough to apply to individuals in the classroom, this study aimed to explore how genetic information may be received in educational settings as a potentially important source of individual differences in academic achievement and learning difficulties. Focus group discussions with teachers and parents were analyzed using qualitative and linguistic methods. Results showed that teachers and parents had similar knowledge of and questions about genetic information and how it could be used in education; both expressed concerns regarding the ethics of its use and suggested other professionals that should be involved in decisions regarding genetic input in education. Parents' personal struggles to obtain appropriate diagnoses and support for their children with learning difficulties, however, added an emotional edge to their views. Families' direct experiences with educational systems, often adversarial, afford them an authority that should be acknowledged by policymakers.

The past over-usage of the DSM-IV category of 'not otherwise specified' (NOS) resulted in it becoming a vague, catch-all label. The new nomenclature in the DSM-5 is Unspecified Disruptive, Impulse-Control, and Conduct Disorder (UDICCD), however, there are little to no data available on the new nomenclature. The current article is aimed at examining the practical usage of the UDICCD diagnosis by mental health practitioners in the juvenile justice system (JJS). Among the findings, three were most notable. First, girls were more likely than boys to receive a specified diagnosis over UDICCD, in particular ODD. Second, two latent classes were identified within this sample based on various behavior and demographic risk correlates of disruptive behavior disorders. Third, animal cruelty, familial support, and alcohol/drug use predicted whether a youth would receive a UDICCD diagnosis. Results and implications are discussed., Author(s): Julia D. Kovalenko [sup.1] , Paulina A. Kulesz [sup.1] , Sascha Hein [sup.2] , Diana Quintana [sup.3] , Matthew Shelton [sup.3] , Elena L. Grigorenko [sup.1] [sup.4] [sup.5] [sup.6] [...]

The original version of the article has unfortunately contained formatting errors in tables., Author(s): Alexandra M. Slaughter [sup.1] , Sascha Hein [sup.1] , Judy H. Hong [sup.2] , Sarah S. Mire [sup.1] , Elena L. Grigorenko [sup.2] [sup.3] [sup.4] Author Affiliations: (1) grid.266436.3, [...]

This mini-review attempts to provide a capsule overview of the role of genetic factors in reading and its development across languages and writing systems. The review is conceived and executed with a scoping review approach, synthesizing the methods employed in the existing research rather than producing a summary of evidence to answer a discrete research question. Specifically, major research approaches in the field of quantitative- and molecular-genetic studies of (a)typical reading development are briefly reviewed and interpreted. Current frontiers of the field are described and places where evidence is insufficient to generate explicit statements about indisputable findings are highlighted. Overall, the resulting vector of the review points to the necessity of the relevant empirical work. Based on the available data at this point, it is impossible to comment authoritatively on the role of languages and writing systems as specifiers or modifiers of the genetic machinery underlying the development of reading skills, as a critical mass of relevant research does not currently exist. More relevant studies are needed to provide evidence-based conclusions about this role.

Research into reading difficulties in Russian has been taking place for about a century, since the 1920s. Early research established a line of studies on reading acquisition difficulties in the context of highly structured practices of teaching reading. These practices were propagated in the mid-late 19th century by Konstantin Ushinskii, who designed a mass system for the directed teaching of reading in Russian based on the mastery of spoken Russian (namely its phonics, phonology, orthography, and morphology). During the Soviet period, this approach was packaged in a universal system that included programs for children and adults, and appears to have been responsible for the high literacy rates (i.e., near 100%) at the end of the last century. In the 1990s, an explosion of diverse reading programs surfaced, claiming to offer a contrast to the Ushinskii system's universal but "boring" content. Nevertheless, the Ushinskii system regained popularity in the early years of the 21st century. Reincarnated and modernized, it once again constitutes the foundation of reading instruction in Russian schools. This article investigates the distribution of various reading-related skills among Russian primary-school students (Grades 2-4) in the context of this universally strong approach to teaching reading.

Orphans and vulnerable children affected by HIV/AIDS (HIV OVC) are at risk for cognitive difficulties and lack of access to education. Interventions addressing cognitive or educational outcomes for HIV OVC worldwide were examined through systematic searches conducted from October 2016 to 2019. We examined the summative effectiveness of interventions and the specific effects of participant age and intervention length. Interventions targeting cognitive outcomes had a small, significant effect, with no effect of moderating variables. Interventions targeting educational outcomes had significant effects. Educational interventions over 1 year were effective, but effects of intervention length were not significant. Overall, this review provides support for the effectiveness of interventions targeting cognitive and educational outcomes for OVC and highlights the need for more research on such interventions.

Reading fluency is one of key facets of reading performance. At the neurophysiological level, as reading skills improve, latencies of P100 and N170 shorten, and the functional role of these ERPs components is expanding. While in primary schoolchildren, only orthographic N170 effects are observed, lexical and grammatical N170 effects are traceable in adulthood. However, previous studies neglect the adolescent sample. The goal of this study was to determine whether adolescents exhibit lexical and grammatical N170 effects and explore the link between reading fluency and P100 and N170 components. We assessed 32 adolescents in the context of a grammaticality judgment ERP experiment and estimated reading fluency. We registered lexical N170 effects indicative of the presence of an adult-like lexical representation system. Moreover, we observed negative correlations between reading fluency and P100 and N170 latencies, which suggest that reading fluency is affected by the speed of visual processing captured by these latencies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous research has indicated that individuals with varying levels of reading comprehension (often used as a proxy for general cognitive ability) employ distinct reading eye movement patterns. This exploratory eye-tracking study aimed to investigate the text-reading process in adolescents with differing reading comprehension, specifically examining how these differences manifest at the global eye movement level through scanpath analysis. Our findings revealed two distinct groups of scanpaths characterized by statistically significant differences in eye movement parameters. These groups were identified as "fast readers" and "slow readers". Both groups exhibited similar oculomotor performance during the initial reading. However, significant differences emerged when they reread and revisited the text. Notably, these findings align with prior research conducted with different samples and languages, although discrepancies emerged in saccade amplitude and first-pass reading behavior. This study contributes to the understanding of how reading comprehension levels are reflected in global eye movement strategies among adolescents. However, limitations inherent in the experimental design, particularly the potential influence of the task on reading patterns, warrant further investigation. Future research should aim to explore these phenomena in more naturalistic reading settings, employing a design specifically tailored to capture the nuances of spontaneous reading behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: A growing body of research supports the role of the microbial communities residing in the digestive system in the host’s cognitive functioning. Most of these studies have been focused on the gut microbiome and its association with clinical phenotypes in middle-aged and older adults. There is an insufficiency of population-based research exploring the association of normative cognitive functioning with the microbiome particularly with the oral microbiota. Methods: In this study, using metagenomics and metabolomics, we characterized the salivary microbiome diversity in a sample of 51 males of Hispanic and African American origin aged 12–18 years and explored the associations between the microbiome and the youths’ cognitive performance captured with the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children II (KABC-II). Results: Several bacterial species of the oral microbiota and related metabolic pathways were associated with cognitive function. In particular, we found negative associations between indicators of general intelligence and the relative abundance of Bacteroidetes and Lachnospiraceae and positive associations with Bifidobacteriaceae and Prevotella histicola sp. Among metabolic pathways, the super pathways related to bacterial cell division and GABA metabolism were linked to cognitive function. Conclusions: The results of our work are consistent with the literature reporting on the association between microbiota and cognitive function and support further population work to elucidate the potential for a healthy oral microbiome to improve cognitive health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: We examined indices of narrative microstructure as metrics of language development and impairment in Arabic-speaking children. We examined their age sensitivity, correlations with standardized measures, and ability to differentiate children with average language and language impairment. Method: We collected story narratives from 177 children (54.2% boys) between 3.08 and 10.92 years old (M = 6.25, SD = 1.67) divided into six age bands. Each child also received standardized measures of spoken language (Receptive and Expressive Vocabulary, Sentence Imitation, and Pseudoword Repetition). Several narrative indices of microstructure were examined in each age band. Children were divided into (suspected) developmental language disorder and typical language groups using the standardized test scores and compared on the narrative indicators. Sensitivity and specificity of the narrative indicators that showed group differences were calculated. Results: The measures that showed age sensitivity included subject omission error rate, number of object clitics, correct use of subject-verb agreement, and mean length of utterance in words. The developmental language disorder group scored higher on subject omission errors (Cohen's "d" = 0.55) and lower on correct use of subject-verb agreement (Cohen's "d" = 0.48) than the typical language group. The threshold for impaired performance with the highest combination of specificity and sensitivity was 35th percentile. Conclusions: Several indices of narrative microstructure appear to be valid metrics for documenting language development in children acquiring Gulf Arabic. Subject omission errors and correct use of subject-verb agreement differentiate children with typical and atypical levels of language development.

Efavirenz (EFV) is a well-known, effective anti-retroviral drug long used in first-line treatment for children and adults with HIV and HIV/AIDS. Due to its narrow window of effective concentrations, between 1 and 4 µg/mL, and neurological side effects at supratherapeutic levels, several investigations into the pharmacokinetics of the drug and its genetic underpinnings have been carried out, primarily with adult samples. A number of studies, however, have examined the genetic influences on the metabolism of EFV in children. Their primary goal has been to shed light on issues of appropriate pediatric dosing, as well as the manifestation of neurotoxic effects of EFV in some children. Although EFV is currently being phased out of use for the treatment of both adults and children, we share this line of research to highlight an important aspect of medical treatment that is relevant to understanding the development of children diagnosed with HIV.

The etiological mechanisms of the genetic underpinnings of developmental language disorder (DLD) are unknown, in part due to the behavioral heterogeneity of the disorder's manifestations. In this study, we explored an association between the SETBP1 gene (18q21.1), revealed in a genome-wide association study of DLD in a geographically isolated population, and brain network-based endophenotypes of functional intracortical coherence between major language-related brain areas. We analyzed electroencephalogram (EEG) data from thirty-nine children (twenty-three with, sixteen without DLD) aged 7.17-15.83 years acquired during an auditory picture-word matching paradigm. Variation at a single nucleotide polymorphism in the intronic region of the "SETBP1" gene, rs8085464, explained 19% of the variance in intracortical network cohesion (p = 0.00478). This suggests that the development of these brain networks might be partially associated with the variation in "SETBP1."

There is an increasing attention to the phenomenon referred to as "twice exceptional" ("2e") children, namely, children who demonstrate both exceptional abilities and disabilities. In this essay, this concept is applied to delinquency and/or emotional-behavior disorder and gifts (talents) in the performance arts, exploring the presence of this association and the support for it in the literature. The essay asserts that this association does exist, qualifies these youth as another category of 2e students, and calls for research on the manifestation, etiology, and development of this co-occurrence.

The current study investigated language development of children residing in institutional care (IC) in Russia, compared to peers raised by biological family care (BFC). We used standardized behavioral testing (Preschool Language Scale-5, McArthur CDI), and an event-related potential picture-word matching paradigm. Children in IC significantly underperformed on the measures of receptive and expressive language development, with larger deficits in expressive domain. ERP findings indicated that children in IC did not demonstrate significant N400 effect in response to semantic violations; there were no significant group differences in semantic processing between IC and the BFC groups. In the late time window of 400-600 ms, phonologically legal pseudowords elicited an ERP component with the positive amplitude in the IC group, resembling P300 ERP component, whereas the BFC group showed the expected N400 effect. The findings point to less efficient lexical processing in the IC group. To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to investigate both the behavioral and neuropsychological aspects of language development, focusing on phonological and lexical-semantic processing, in children who currently live in IC.

The current study investigated the long-term effects of institutionalization on the inhibitory control of young adults raised in orphanages using the color-word Stroop task. We examined whether young adults raised in institutions (IC group; n = 24; M = 22.17 years, SD = 6.7) would demonstrate poorer behavioral performance and atypical neural response to incongruent stimuli compared to their peers raised in biological families (Biological Family Care, BFC group; n = 28; M = 22.25 years, SD = 4.9). Accuracy analysis revealed that all participants were less accurate in the incongruent condition, however, no group differences were found. Reaction time analysis showed that the institutional care (IC) group was overall slower than the BFC. No significant differences in neural response to stimuli incongruence were identified. The absence of group differences in the interference condition can be explained by the low complexity of the Stroop task in the current study. The IC group showed a reduced P3 event-related potential component on both the congruent and incongruent trials. Findings suggest general attention difficulties in this population, rather than inhibitory control deficits.

The objective was to delineate the prevalence of criminal behavior and school discipline in juvenile justice-involved youth (JJY) with autism. A sample of 143 JJY with autism was matched to comparison groups of JJY without a special education classification, JJY with learning disabilities, and JJY with other special educational needs (N = 572). Results showed that JJY with autism committed significantly fewer property crimes. With regard to school discipline, JJY with autism were least likely to receive policy violations, out-of-school suspensions, and in-school suspensions. Finally, regardless of special education classification, JJY who had a history of fighting in school were more likely to recidivate. Our results suggest that JJY with autism are not more likely to commit crimes compared to JJY without SEN.

In this article we present a summary of the literature on the associations between learning difficulties/disabilities and juvenile delinquency. This literature is almost a hundred years old, but, although reportedly demonstrating the low academic achievement-delinquency connection, contains numerous unanswered questions regarding the frequency, strength, direction, stability, and causality of these associations. We then use this literature to contextualize the research taking place at the Houston Learning Disabilities (LD) Hub, a member of the LD Centers and Hubs Network, supported by National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD). In doing so, we present our previous studies and our current research. We conclude by discussing a number of shortcomings in the literature, some--but far from all--of which we hope to address in our ongoing work.

Background/Objectives: The increase in digital tools in early childhood education highlights the need for evidence-based assessments that support cognitive development and align with educational requirements and technological advances. This study contributes to the evaluation of the Bilingual English Language Learner Assessment (BELLA), designed to enhance early learning through curriculum-aligned tasks in preschool-aged children. Methods: Data were collected from 17 schools, including 506 preschool children, using a mixed-model approach to assess BELLA's capacity to appraise early numeracy, literacy, science, and social/emotional development. Analyses included a three-way ANOVA to examine the effects of sex, age, and sub-domain on pass rates and mixed-effects models to evaluate interactions between age and domain. Results: The results indicated a significant effect of age on performance across all domains, with older children demonstrating higher pass rates (p < 0.0001). No significant gender bias was detected. The interaction between age and domain was also significant (p < 0.0001), suggesting domain-specific age-related performance trends, which aligns with internal validity requirements. Conclusion: These findings position BELLA within the growing body of literature on digital media use in early childhood assessment and education, highlighting its potential as a curriculum-compliant digital assessment tool that evaluates and supports cognitive development without a gender bias. This study contributes to the field by providing empirical evidence of BELLA's effectiveness and suggesting future research directions, including the exploration of its bilingual (and potentially multilingual) applications and external validation against existing evidence-based assessments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An important goal of research on specific learning disorders (such as dyslexia, or specific reading disability, or dysgraphia, or specific writing disorder) is to elucidate the universal characteristics and cross-linguistic and cross-cultural differences of literacy acquisition and disability. However, despite the acknowledged necessity of broadening the scope of reading research to include typologically diverse languages, the bulk of reading research has focused on a small group of closely related languages. This paper reviews the characteristics of the Russian language and orthographic system that are relevant to literacy acquisition, approaches to literacy instruction, and dyslexia in Russia, historically and at present, and discusses the potential contributions of Russian language research to the field of reading acquisition and reading disability.