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It has long been claimed that certain configurations of facial movements are universally recognized as emotional expressions because they evolved to signal emotional information in situations that posed fitness challenges for our hunting and gathering hominin ancestors. Experiments from the last decade have called this particular evolutionary hypothesis into doubt by studying emotion perception in a wider sample of small-scale societies with discovery-based research methods. We replicate these newer findings in the Hadza of Northern Tanzania; the Hadza are semi-nomadic hunters and gatherers who live in tight-knit social units and collect wild foods for a large portion of their diet, making them a particularly relevant population for testing evolutionary hypotheses about emotion. Across two studies, we found little evidence of universal emotion perception. Rather, our findings are consistent with the hypothesis that people infer emotional meaning in facial movements using emotion knowledge embrained by cultural learning. ispartof: SCIENTIFIC REPORTS vol:10 issue:1 ispartof: location:England status: published

How can we enhance theory-method alignment when studying collective leadership? We propose that leveraging methodological approaches that are powerful enough to address three primary challenges of collective leadership—the incorporation of time, context, and multiple levels—will promote a more robust body of collective leadership research and practice. In particular, we review and integrate three complementary methodological approaches—organizational discourse analysis, relational event modeling, and dynamic network analysis—which have the flexibility to address these challenges. The purpose of this article is to demonstrate the utility of these methodological approaches for addressing major methodological challenges within the field of collective leadership. Through this effort, we aim to facilitate conversation across disparate streams of research and encourage researchers to explore how novel research questions and perspectives might be advanced through leveraging these methods, either in isolation or in combination.

Leaders are often identified in empirical studies by either their position in an organizationally defined hierarchy or by survey responses, yet such methods conflate behavioral antecedents and outcomes with behaviors themselves. Furthermore, without an external standard for comparison, it cannot be known to what extent differences in leader assignment or emergence between demographic or other categories are due to behavioral differences or biases in the assessment, selection, training, or rating processes. In this study, we propose the ``interruption network'' as a model of small group structure that is (a) grounded in social status theory, (b) definable in both lab and field groups, (c) minimally impacted by rater bias, and (d) based on assessed behaviors rather than antecedents or outcomes. We show that analysis of interruption networks suggests that the often-reported male bias in leadership attributions is found in the ratings but not in the behavior of the observed individuals: males and females may engage in leadership behaviors equally as often, but males are attributed leadership significantly more. Use of the interruption network to represent small group social status therefore extends well-established research on non-verbal behaviors to an explicitly group-oriented context, supporting theory-based unobtrusive assessment and new ways to address important questions in applied psychology.

Effective teamwork in an initially leaderless group requires a high level of collective leadership emerging from dynamic interactions among group members. Leader emergence is a crucial topic in collective leadership, yet it is challenging to investigate as the problem context is typically highly complex and dynamic. Here, we explore leadership emergence and leadership perception by means of computational simulations whose assumptions and parameters were informed by empirical research and human-subject experiments. Our agent-based model describes the process of group planning. Each agent is assigned with three key attributes: talkativeness, intelligence, and credibility. An agent can propose a suggestion to modify the group plan as a speaker or respond and evaluate others’ suggestions and leadership as a listener. Simulation results suggested that agents with high values of talkativeness, intelligence, and credibility tended to be perceived as leaders by their peers. Results also showed that talkativeness may be the most significant and instantaneous predictor for leader emergence of the three investigated attributes: talkativeness, intelligence, and credibility. In terms of group performance, smaller groups may outperform larger groups regarding their problem-solving ability in the beginning, but their performance tends to be of no significant difference in a long run. These results match the empirical literature and offer a mechanistic, operationalized description of the collective leadership processes.

Various motivational theories emphasize that desired emotional outcomes guide behavioral choices. Although motivational theory and research has emphasized that behavior is affected by desired emotional outcomes, little research has focused on the impact of anticipated feelings about engaging in behavior. The current research seeks to partly fill that void. Specifically, we borrow from affective forecasting research in suggesting that forecasts about engaging in performance-relevant behaviors can be more or less accurate. Furthermore, we suggest that the degree of accuracy has implications for self-reported task performance. To examine these ideas, we conducted two studies in which individuals made affective predictions about engaging in tasks and then later reported how they actually felt during task engagement. We also assessed their self-reported task performance. In Study 1, 214 workers provided affective forecasts about upcoming work tasks, and in Study 2, 185 students made forecasts about studying for an exam. Results based on polynomial regression were largely consistent across the studies. The accuracy of the forecasts did not conform to the pattern of affective forecasting accuracy typically found outside the performance domain. Furthermore, anticipated and experienced affect jointly predicted self-reported task performance in a consistent manner. Collectively, these findings suggest that taking into account anticipated affect, and its relationship with later experienced affect, provides a more comprehensive account of affect's role in task performance.

Conversational interruptions can carry negative connotations, yet prior research has consistently found positive associations between interruptions and attributions of leadership and social status....

The majority of studies designed to assess cross-cultural emotion perception use a choice-from-array task in which participants are presented with brief emotion stories and asked to choose between target and foil cues. This task has been widely criticized, evoking a lively and prolonged debate about whether it inadvertently helps participants to perform better than they otherwise would, resulting in the appearance of universality. In 3 studies, we provide a strong test of the hypothesis that the classic choice-from-array task constitutes a potent source of context that shapes performance. Participants from a remote small-scale (the Hadza hunter-gatherers of Tanzania) and 2 urban industrialized (China and the United States) cultural samples selected target vocalizations that were contrived for 6 non-English, nonuniversal emotion categories at levels significantly above chance. In studies of anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise, above chance performance is interpreted as evidence of universality. These studies support the hypothesis that choice-from-array tasks encourage evidence for cross-cultural emotion perception. We discuss these findings with reference to the history of cross-cultural emotion perception studies, and suggest several processes that may, together, give rise to the appearance of universal emotions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

The large, positive correlation between speaking time and leader emergence is well-established. As such, some authors have argued for a “babble hypothesis” of leadership, suggesting that only the quantity of speaking, not its quality, determines leader emergence. However, previous tests of this notion may have been problematic. Some studies have asserted a causal effect of speaking time on leader emergence based on experimental studies, but have limited participant communication, access to reliable information, or both. Other studies have used more ecologically valid designs, but have not always controlled for relevant participant traits or roles, suggesting potential endogeneity effects. Testing the babble hypothesis thus requires a study that is both ecologically valid and supports strong inference. The current study fills that gap and finds that speaking time retains its direct effect on leader emergence when accounting for intelligence, personality, gender, and the endogeneity of speaking time.

Do configurations of facial movements like widened eyes and a gasping mouth carry the same emotional meaning across societies? Relatively few studies have addressed this question in small-scale human societies using discovery oriented methods. To help fill this gap, we examined emotion perception in members of the Hadza hunters and gatherers. Hadza perceivers, when asked to provide their own labels for posed configurations of facial movements, neither produced the emotion terms that have been proposed as universal; nor did many of their labels refer to internal experiences. Instead, Hadza individuals, when compared to a US sample, frequently labeled facial poses with action terms. When Hadza participants were provided with descriptive scenarios that contained information about the situation and were tasked with choosing the best-matching configuration of facial movements, they again were less likely to choose the configurations proposed as universal when compared to a US sample; they performed well above chance on affect perception, however, matching pleasant and unpleasant situation descriptions to facial configurations portraying pleasant and unpleasant states, respectively. We discuss these findings with reference to prominent evolutionary approaches to understanding emotion: a classical view of emotion that proposes facial expressions are evidence of innate, adaptive responses to recurring fitness challenges in our hunter-gatherer past and a constructionist view that proposes domain general evolved capacities, combined with emotion knowledge enbrained by cultural evolution, to produce perceptions of emotion.

The Army identifies creativity as an essential skillset in today’s complex operational environment. Creativity promotes the generation of new methods and outcomes unforeseen by the enemy, that when executed properly, should provide an unseen advantage that allows for land operations dominance. Doctrine specifies that leaders need to possess, utilize, and foster in others the creative capacity needed to judiciously engage in creative thinking as situations dictate. However, the Army’s hierarchical structure and process orientation can impede the development and utilization of creative thinking. This chapter explores the tension between creative expression and suppression within an Army context and suggests streams of research that could inform creative practices within the Army.

The actions of organizational leaders are important determinants of the emergence, management, and consequences of employee emotional experience. However, the nature and dimensionality of leader emotion management and the behaviors that constitute such management are largely unknown. The authors present a comprehensive, theoretically-derived model of leader emotion management which clarifies the nature of emotion management and its role in leadership. This model also delineates the knowledge and skill-based antecedents of emotion management and the consequences of such management. Specifically, we propose linkages between particular KSAOs and specific emotion management dimensions and between those dimensions and particular individual and organizational outcomes. The model is meant to serve as a framework to guide empirical efforts in investigating the nature and correlates of leader emotion management.

Many of the prevailing approaches to understanding leadership assume that leadership operates as an individual-level phenomenon, in which one person takes on the role of a leader. However, a number of recently developed leadership models now describe leadership as a shared process. These collectivistic theories present leadership as a dynamic process in which a leader may selectively utilize the skills of followers and distribute elements of the leadership role among these followers as the situation demands. In this study, we conduct an investigation into the viability of core elements of the collectivistic theories through a historiometric analysis of events from the career of a notable leader, George C. Marshall. One hundred and two events from Marshall's career were identified from historical biographies and were then content coded and analyzed with regard to the components of a collectivistic leadership model. The results of this historiometric analysis indicated that there are key antecedents to collectivistic leadership and that the use of this form of leadership can result in positive team outcomes.

The focus of current American military operations has changed over the last few years, from an emphasis on warfighting missions to those of full spectrum operations and persistent conflict. Thus, cultural awareness and competency are critical for performance effectiveness and mission success in irregular warfare, counterinsurgency, nation building, and other such operations. Decision-making in these contexts requires highly trained critical thinking skills, with the ability to shift routinely from decisions that are military to those that are diplomatic in nature. Chief of Staff of the Army, Gen. Ray Odierno (February 11, 2014), recently noted that the Army holds a “leader-centric view of being adaptable, flexible, and able to adapt to the situation on the ground.” Leaders, in particular, must learn how to recognize signs that personnel are not effectively adapting to different cultures and subsequently take action to develop the cognitive, affective, and behavioral characteristics that enable cross-cultural adaptation. It is with this focus and intent that the current research identifies a process by which individuals adapt when transitioning to unfamiliar cultures. This chapter summarizes research funded by the U.S. Army Research Institute to categorize these adaptive characteristics and identify leader strategies to establish and maintain unit adaptability across cultures.

The purpose of this paper is to discuss the challenges in creating an effective distance learning program to train emotion management skills in Army leaders. We present (1) a four tiered blended learning program intended to support both didactic and experiential learning and (2) the theoretical underpinnings to support the learning program design. Feedback from Soldiers on prototype versions and redesign decisions are also included.

Decision-making researchers have identified the construct cognitive reflection to explain the variance in intuitive thinking processes that traditional ability constructs cannot. A body of research...

To date, the dominant approach to leadership research assumes that all aspects of the leadership role within a team are embodied by a single individual. In the real world, however, this is rarely the case. Rather, multiple individuals within the team may serve as leaders in both formal and informal capacities, and the shifting of leadership responsibilities is often rooted in which individual's expertise is most relevant to the given problem. In the present effort, we add to the rapidly growing body of work that focuses on the distribution of the leadership role among multiple individuals. We have reviewed relevant extant literature and proposed an integrated framework for understanding the collective leadership process. Also, in developing this framework we have taken an information and expertise-based approach such that we propose that collective leadership, or the distribution of the leadership role, is a function of selectively utilizing the information or specialized expertise that individuals within the network possess. In reviewing the framework, 55 propositions with regard to the collective leadership process are outlined and suggestions for future research are provided.

U.S. Army teams operate under high stakes conditions where the potential for error and disaster is a possibility. For these teams, trust becomes an important factor in team processes. However, it is unknown whether current definitions of trust generalize to the U.S. Army. Therefore, the current research seeks to explore the dynamics of trust as defined by the U.S. Army. Sixty Soldiers from a Military Intelligence program across TRADOC installations rated various definitions of trust and ranked ordered three definitions. Results indicated that Soldiers reported integrity and dependability of another person as key requirements in a trusting relationship, and identified the expected cooperation of another person as the definition that least fit their own beliefs about trust. Integrity and dependability were most commonly ranked components of trust. Implications for trust development and training for the U.S. Army are explored.

A study to determine the feasibility of producing forage for grazing livestock under trees was conducted as a step toward evaluating the potential for silvopasture systems in the northern and central Great Plains. The effects of overstory leaf area index (LAI), percentage understory light transmittance (LT), and soil moisture (SM) on yield and crude protein (CP) of big bluestem [Andropogon gerardii Vitman; (BB)], smooth bromegrass [Bromus inermis Leyss.; (SB)], and mixtures with birdsfoot trefoil [Lotus corniculatus L.; (BFT)] were examined. The study was conducted in both Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvancia Marsh.) tree plantations, at the University of Nebraska Agriculture Research and Development Center near Mead, Nebraska. Thirty-six plots representing a wide range of canopy cover were selected at each location and seeded in April 2000 to BB, SB, or mixtures with BFT. Measurements of LAI, LT, and SM were taken throughout the 2001-growing season and plots were harvested in June and September 2001. Soil moisture generally did not explain much of the variability in yield or CP for BB, SB, or BFT. Cumulative LAI or LT averaged over the growing season was the best predictor of yield or CP, particularly under the pine. Yields of BB and SB increased as LAI decreased or LT increased. Conversely, the CP of BB and SB increased as LT decreased for both the June and September harvests. Both BB and SB maintain relatively high productivity under partial shading; however, BFT yields were low at LT levels below 75%.

The U.S. Army faces a difficult and challenging context today. To help meet these challenges, we propose the Army looks beyond traditional, individual-level approaches to leadership to include a collective leadership framework. A conceptualization of collective leadership is presented that is multi-level in nature, builds on a foundation of general leadership concepts, includes communication as a core element, is team- and network-based, and considers both “hard” and “soft” criteria and situational moderators applicable to individual leaders, squads, platoons, companies, battalions, and brigades. The fundamentals of a new measurement system for collective leadership are then developed. Viable measures of various aspects and dimensions of the collective leadership conceptualization are constructed using markers, surveys, interviews, critical incidents, and policy capturing scenarios to begin a multi-level assessment of collective leadership for the Army. Measurement instruments are provided as a part of this report.

Every context and situation has the potential to evoke an emotional response in a Soldier; such emotions may include happiness, boredom, anxiety, and fear. Success in dealing with these situations requires that Army leaders leverage the emotional properties of a situation to exert influence on one or more Soldiers in order to attain a desired outcome. Army leaders, however, receive little training in this area. Neither the Army Leadership Field Manual (U.S. Department of the Army FM 6-22, 2006) nor the psychology research literature provides detailed guidance regarding the trainable attributes needed to manage emotions in self and others. The purpose of this Phase I STTR work was to compile and synthesize research from various domains in order to better understand the nature of emotional management and the attributes that predict it. This report outlines specific knowledge, skills, abilities, and other capabilities that predict leaders? success in executing eight categories (i.e., dimensions) of emotion management behaviors, which are posited to impact proximal' outcomes and, in turn, ultimate outcomes. Implications for the U.S. Army are discussed.

Pine foliage samples of 1.00, 0.50, and 0.25 g were ground in either a Wiley mill or a shatterbox, ashed, subjected to either HF or HNO3 digestions, and analyzed for element concentrations. Grinding methods had little effect on estimated mean element concentrations. The 1.00 g sample size was preferable, but few differences were observed with the 0.50 g sample. However, the 0.50 g weight is probably approaching the minimum for conventional grinding and analytical methods. Both acid digestions were equally effective in dissolving major elemental constituents, but the HF method was superior for the micro‐nutrients, especially Mn. Variability associated with the major elements was similar for all combinations of grinding, acids, and the two larger sample weights. For analysis of the minor elements, the best combination was the 1.00 g sample, shatterbox grinding, and HF digestion. Analysis of 1.00 g samples of National Institute of Standards and Technology pine needles, Standard Reference Material No...

The extent to which inter- and intra-specific competition may limit the nutrition of crop trees over the length of a rotation is quantified for a quaking aspen ecosystem. The accepted clearcutting management regime for aspen often regenerates dramatically overstocked stands. Consequently, half way into a 40-year rotation only 36% of the aspen aboveground woody biomass production was being added to what would eventually be harvestable stems. The allocation of large amounts of woody production onto non-crop trees is inefficient for fiber production and displaces nutrient capital from crop trees. The amounts of P, K, and Mg residing in understory plant tissues represented 14, 24, and 13% of the total plant available ecosystem pools, respectively. The data indicate that individual aspen trees would have higher concentrations of all macronutrients in woody tissues, provided the competition among aspen stems and between aspen and understory were reduced. An alternative strategy for managing aspen, based on manipulation of ecosystem nutrient storage pools and the specific biology of the species, is proposed. This method relies on leaving some dominant trees uncut to suppress the initial restocking levels, thereby focusing more of the early rotation production onto potential crop trees. North. J. Appl. For. 7:58-62, June 1990.

An equation that incorporates a variable allometric ratio (VAR) was compared with the traditional "power function" for estimation of foliage weight for six tree species. The equations were fitted using diameter at breast height (DBH) and diameter at the base of the live crown as predictors. When DBH was used as the independent variable, the VAR explained statistically significant additional variation in three of the six species examined, and in most cases reduced bias. Residual analysis indicated no need for a more complex mathematical expression than the linear VAR. However, the flexibility of the VAR was not necessary when diameter at the base of the live crown was used as the predictor variable. The use of combined variable predictors (DBH × total height) and multiple regression on DBH and total height was also examined.