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To establish if highly eutrophic lakes generate higher N2O emissions than non-eutrophic aquatic environments in New Zealand, we monitored N2O emissions from hypereutrophic Lake Horowhenua, near Levin, and the oligotrophic Turitea dam reservoir, near Palmerston North, used as control. Based on more than 12 months of monitoring data, N2O emissions from Lake Horowhenua were estimated to −0.05–6.93 mg-N2O·m−2·d−1 (n = 66), with a median of 0.30 mg-N2O·m−2·d−1. At the Turitea reservoir, N2O emissions ranged from −0.02–1.51 mg-N2O·m−2·d−1 with a median of 0.15 mg-N2O·m−2·d−1 (n = 53). No correlation was found between N2O emissions and the water temperature, sunlight, dissolved oxygen, nutrient concentration or chlorophyll a. When extrapolating the emission data to NZ, we estimated NZ lakes could release 83 kt of N2O as CO2eq each year, which is low in comparison to other sectors such as agriculture. Following the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change methodology, the N2O emission factor for Lake Horowhenua was estimated at 0.0019 kg N2O-N per kg of N-NO3− input into the lake. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Guidelines for international reporting of greenhouse gas emissions and removals in the forest sector require a land-based approach that includes all lands subject to forest management activities such as harvest, forest inventory, regeneration, management of natural disturbances, and protected areas. The reported net greenhouse gas balance of managed forests is not limited to forest stands resulting from timber harvest and wood product use. Reporting guidelines specify methods to reduce interannual variability in reported emissions attributable to natural disturbances. In Canada, the initial (1990) assignment of all inventoried stands to anthropogenic or natural disturbance reporting categories is determined by the last stand-initiating disturbance. A new compilation of historic (1889 to 1989) harvest data in Canada reduces the area reported in the anthropogenic category by 34 million hectares (20%) in 1990. This area transfer from anthropogenic to natural origin reduces the carbon sink reported as anthropogenic by 113 Mt CO2e yr−1 (56%) in 1990 and by 30 Mt CO2e yr−1 (23%) in 2021. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The shipping sector is one of the major contributors to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. We aimed to calculate GHG emissions categorized by ship type for all vessels registered in South Korea. Hence, for the first time in South Korea, a bottom-up method based on ship activity data was employed, estimating energy consumption and emissions by ship type. Data from ships registered from 2019 to 2021 were collected and reclassified by ship type, and operational profiles were developed. Based on these profiles, the emissions of major GHGs, including CO2, CH4, and N2O, were estimated for the 3-year period. Cargo ships accounted for the highest percentage of annual fuel consumption, approximately 62.7%–64.7% of the total fuel consumption for all ships. The GHG emissions were calculated to be an average of 4.644 million tonCO2e, which is approximately 6.5 times higher than those from oil tankers (0.710 million tonCO2e), the second-highest emitter. This highlights the need for intensified GHG reduction measures specifically targeting cargo ships, providing clear evidence for prompt and enhanced implementation. The research findings are expected to be utilized as substantiated data for developing specific and systematic GHG reduction policies tailored to each ship type. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Societal Impact Statement Human interactions with forests have shaped Earth's climate for millennia and will continue to do so as we target net‐zero emission goals. Accurately characterizing these climate impacts requires making reliable forest carbon data available for forest monitoring and planning. Here, we develop a semi‐automated process for submitting forest carbon measurements from the largest relevant scientific database to the International Panel on Climate Change's Emission Factor Database, which currently has sparse forest carbon data. Building this bridge from scientific research to international policy is an important step towards managing forests in a net‐zero motivated future. Humans have been influencing Earth's climate via transformative impacts on forests for millennia, and forests are now recognized as critical to climate change mitigation under the Paris Agreement. The efficacy of climate change mitigation planning and reporting depends on quality data on forest carbon (C) stocks and changes. The Emission Factor Database (EFDB) of the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is intended to be a definitive source for such data, but needs comprehensive and well‐documented data to be so. To facilitate submission of forest C estimates from scientific studies to EFDB, we develop and document a process for semi‐automated data submission from the Global Forest C database (ForC v4.0), which is the largest compilation of ground‐based forest C estimates. We then assess the data currently available through ForC and provide recommendations for improving forest data collection, analysis, and reporting. As of September 2024, ForC contained ~19,286 records potentially relevant to EFDB, 1068 of which had been submitted and posted to EFDB. These represented 19% of the total EFDB records for forest land. Records were unevenly distributed across variables and geographic regions. ForC records (37%) reviewed could not be submitted because the original publication lacked required information. In the future, ground‐based forest C estimates should target gaps in the record, and studies should ensure that they report all information necessary for inclusion in EFDB. Given that climate change is rapidly impacting the world's forests, timely reporting of recent estimates will be critical to accurate forest C inventories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, greenhouse gas emissions caused by natural gas, electricity and diesel fuel consumed within the boundaries of Kütahya 30 August Organized Industrial Zone were calculated and studies were explored for reduction activities. Within the scope of ISO 14064-1 Guidelines and Features Standard for Calculation and Reporting of Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Removal at the Establishment Level” and “ISO 14067 Product Carbon Footprint Calculation Standard”, the amount of greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere was calculated by using the data recorded by the enterprises on a yearly basis. While the direct emissions from natural gas was calculated as 105394.84 tCO2e in 2019, these emissions decreased in 2020 and reached 2019 level again in 2021. Indirect emissions from imported electricity were 64269.12 tCO2e in 2019, while electricity-related emissions increased in 2020 and 2021. Direct emissions from diesel are considerably lower than those from natural gas and electricity in terms of quantity. However, while the emissions from diesel fuel was 74.11 tCO2e in 2019, these emissions decreased by 75.5% in 2020 and reached 29.49 tCO2e in 2021. A large part of the greenhouse gas generated due to both electricity and natural gas consumption originates from an organization operating in the field of tile-ceramic manufacturing and an organization operating in the field of paper-corrugated cardboard manufacturing. There are many organizations in different fields of activity in organized industrial zones. The study has shown that greenhouse gas emissions must be monitored in these regions and it is necessary to determine the source of greenhouse gas emissions, otherwise the proposed reduction methods will not be very effective.

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In South Korea, Agriculture, Forestry, and Other Land Use (AFOLU) collates greenhouse gas (GHG) inventories. However, the settlement category lacks a clear definition of land use and activity data. This study proposed a method for examining the settlement spatial extent and constructing activity data to estimate GHG emissions and absorption as a pilot calculation, as well as to provide data for land use classification. Utilizing cadastral maps (CDMs), settlement spatial extents were determined, with settlements occupying approximately 11% of the total land area in 2019, or 9% excluding overlaps. Activity data for settlements were established through a sampling method and analysis of aerial orthoimages from 2000 and 2019. After removing overlaps with digital forest type maps and smart farm maps, settlement activity data covered approximately 18.47% based on CDMs, or 12.66% excluding overlaps. In 2019, CO2 emissions and absorptions were estimated at 622.16 ktCO2yr−1 based on CDMs and 242.16 ktCO2yr−1, excluding overlaps. To enhance GHG inventory calculation consistency and compliance with TACCC principles, clear spatial extents for settlements must be established. This entails constructing activity data and assessing GHG inventories accordingly. GHG inventory statistics should also inform future nationally determined contributions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Greenhouse gases trap heat in the atmosphere, causing the Earth’s surface temperature to rise. The main greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, perfluorocarbons, hydrofluorocarbons, and sulfur hexafluoride. Human activities are increasing greenhouse gas concentrations rapidly, which is causing global climate change. Global climate change is increasing environmental and public health problems. To reduce greenhouse gas emissions, it is necessary to identify where the emissions are coming from, develop a plan to reduce them, and then implement and monitor the plan to ensure that emissions are actually reduced. Anthropogenic global climate change has large and increasingly adverse economic effects. Cities emit the most greenhouse gas due to fossil fuel burning and power usage. The four major greenhouse gas emitters are energy, transportation, waste management, and urban land use sectors. Organizations should prepare action plans to lower their greenhouse gas emissions and stop the worst consequences of climate change. These action plans require companies and local authorities to submit their greenhouse gas emissions reports on a yearly basis. A greenhouse gas emissions management system includes several processes and tools created by organizations to understand, measure, monitor, report, and validate their greenhouse gas emissions. Two of the most widely adapted frameworks for greenhouse gases inventory reporting are ISO 14064 and the greenhouse gas protocol. This review paper aims to identify some of the key points of GHG inventory preparation and mitigation strategies.

Greenhouse gases trap heat in the atmosphere, causing the Earth's surface temperature to rise. The main greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, perfluorocarbons, hydrofluorocarbons, and sulfur hexafluoride. Human activities are increasing greenhouse gas concentrations rapidly, which is causing global climate change. Global climate change is increasing environmental and public health problems. To reduce greenhouse gas emissions, it is necessary to identify where the emissions are coming from, develop a plan to reduce them, and then implement and monitor the plan to ensure that emissions are actually reduced. Anthropogenic global climate change has large and increasingly adverse economic effects. Cities emit the most greenhouse gas due to fossil fuel burning and power usage. The four major greenhouse gas emitters are energy, transportation, waste management, and urban land use sectors. Organizations should prepare action plans to lower their greenhouse gas emissions and stop the worst consequences of climate change. These action plans require companies and local authorities to submit their greenhouse gas emissions reports on a yearly basis. A greenhouse gas emissions management system includes several processes and tools created by organizations to understand, measure, monitor, report, and validate their greenhouse gas emissions. Two of the most widely adapted frameworks for greenhouse gases inventory reporting are ISO 14064 and the greenhouse gas protocol. This review paper aims to identify some of the key points of GHG inventory preparation and mitigation strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The land use sector is a crucial pillar in achieving the EU climate goals set for 2050. A significant part of the climate change mitigation potential of the land use sector is inherent to agroforestry. Windbreaks are important agroforestry elements of Hungarian agricultural landscapes. The new and improved agroforestry subsidy system may positively affect the extension of windbreaks in Hungary, making it relevant to assess their carbon sequestration potential. In our study, we examined the carbon sequestration of windbreaks at the country level and in two sample areas of 24,000 hectares based on National Forestry Database volume stock data, as well as information collected from the Hungarian Forest Cover Map using orthophoto interpretation. We estimated the total annual carbon sequestration realized in the aboveground biomass pool of Hungarian windbreaks to be −33.1 ktCO2/year, which is 0.67% of the total annual carbon sequestration of the aboveground biomass pool of all Hungarian forests, as reported by the Hungarian Greenhouse Gas Inventory. On the other hand, according to our estimate, the weighted mean annual carbon sequestration in the aboveground biomass of windbreaks was −2.4 tCO2/ha/year in the 2010–2020 period. This value is very close to the average mean annual carbon sequestration per hectare value of all forests, as reported by the Hungarian Greenhouse Gas Inventory. This means that planting a given area of windbreaks in between agricultural fields can have similar climate change mitigation effects as planting forests in the same given area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated a method for directly estimating methane emissions from rice paddy fields at the field level using drone-based time-series vegetation indices at a town scale. Drone optical and spectral images were captured approximately 15 times from April to November to acquire time-series vegetation indices and optical orthoimages. An empirical regression model validated in previous international studies was applied to calculate cumulative methane emissions throughout the rice cultivation process. Methane emissions were estimated using the vegetation index and yield data were used as input variables for each growth phase. Methane emissions from rice paddies showed maximum values of 309 kg CH4 ha−1, within a 7% range compared to similar studies, and minimum values of 138 kg CH4 ha−1, with differences ranging from 29% to 58%. The average emissions were calculated at 247 kg CH4/ha, revealing slightly lower average values but individual field values within a similar range. The results suggest that drone-based remote sensing technology is an efficient and cost-effective alternative to traditional field measurements for greenhouse gas emission assessments. However, adjustments and validations according to rice varieties and local cultivation environments are necessary. Overcoming these limitations can help establish sustainable agricultural management practices and achieve local greenhouse gas reduction targets.

Coastal blue carbon plays an important role in the global climate change and carbon cycle. Ecological restoration and market trading can effectively improve coastal blue carbon sink, which is a cost-effective way to achieve carbon neutrality. In order to explore the potential of coastal blue carbon to promote the realization of carbon neutrality, this paper elaborated advantages of developing coastal blue carbon. At the same time, this paper analyzed the problems faced by coastal blue carbon development in system construction and technology development, then put forward the countermeasures and suggestions: improve the policy measures of coastal blue carbon conservation and carbon sink trading, and promote the mechanism construction of land-sea coordination and ecological compensation. Promote the development of blue carbon greenhouse gas inventories and participation in international cooperation. Set up monitoring and assessment pilots to improve carbon sink measurement and accounting methods. Strengthen the scientific research and radical technical bottlenecks.

The Paris Agreement and the European Green Deal set ambitious climate change mitigation goals. In order to achieve these goals and offset the emissions of all other sectors significant additional carbon sequestration is needed in the land use sector. The capacity of the land use sector and especially forests to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is key in climate change mitigation pathways. Well planned forest industry related measures can significantly increase carbon sequestration in living biomass as well as in harvested wood products. In our study we investigated the climate change mitigation effects of forest management systems and nature conservation conducting a Greenhouse Gas Inventory-like analysis on Hungarian forests using a forest management system and protection status specific breakdown and considering only the biomass pool. Our main conclusion was that under similar yield class distribution logging intensity and carbon sequestration are not inversely proportional. We observed that non-protected forests achieve higher net carbon sink under a higher logging intensity. Regarding forest management systems we observed significantly higher net carbon sink under transitional forest management than what was found for all other management systems. Continuous cover management and non-production forest management did not show significantly different carbon fluxes.

Improvements in the calculated monitoring system (CMS) of anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) and black carbon (BC) in the Russian Federation are carried out in three main areas: identification of gaps in the statistical information necessary for estimating emissions; development of updated national coefficients for certain source categories; automation and digitalization of monitoring data. The detailed statistical information missing in the monitoring system determines the accuracy of estimates for more than 80% of total GHG emissions and almost 30% of GHG removals. The coefficients planned to be developed for estimating emissions from key categories until 2024 will make it possible to clarify more than 30% of total net emissions in Russia. Subject to successful digitalization, the Russian CRM of anthropogenic GHG flows can take the leading positions in the world in terms of the quality of the data provided. The country is creating an integrated system of emissions and atmospheric transport of BC, which includes subsystems of calculated monitoring of BC emissions on the territory of Russia and neighboring countries, model assessment of atmospheric transport and impact on the Arctic region. The improved CMS of anthropogenic GHG and BC fluxes is the central element of the most important innovative project of national importance to create a unified monitoring system for climate-active substances and the basis for planning measures to reduce emissions and increase GHG removals and evaluate their effectiveness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In South Korea, Agriculture, Forestry, and Other Land Use (AFOLU) collates greenhouse gas (GHG) inventories. However, the settlement category lacks a clear definition of land use and activity data. This study proposed a method for examining the settlement spatial extent and constructing activity data to estimate GHG emissions and absorption as a pilot calculation, as well as to provide data for land use classification. Utilizing cadastral maps (CDMs), settlement spatial extents were determined, with settlements occupying approximately 11% of the total land area in 2019, or 9% excluding overlaps. Activity data for settlements were established through a sampling method and analysis of aerial orthoimages from 2000 and 2019. After removing overlaps with digital forest type maps and smart farm maps, settlement activity data covered approximately 18.47% based on CDMs, or 12.66% excluding overlaps. In 2019, CO2 emissions and absorptions were estimated at 622.16 ktCO2yr−1 based on CDMs and 242.16 ktCO2yr−1, excluding overlaps. To enhance GHG inventory calculation consistency and compliance with TACCC principles, clear spatial extents for settlements must be established. This entails constructing activity data and assessing GHG inventories accordingly. GHG inventory statistics should also inform future nationally determined contributions.

Abstract Background Five ministries are involved in estimating the greenhouse gas (GHG) inventory in the South Korean land use, land-use change, and forestry (LULUCF) sectors. However, these ministries have not established a consistent land classification standard between land-use categories. Therefore, the GHG inventory is estimated at the approach 1 level with no spatial clarity between land-use categories. Moreover, the settlements category is not estimated because activity data and the spatial scope are lacking. This study proposed a methodology for constructing a land-use change (LUC) matrix in the LULUCF sector for improving approach level and estimating the GHG inventory in the settlements. Result We examined 10 sets of spatiotemporal data in South Korea to construct a LUC matrix. To maintain consistency in the spatial land classification, we constructed a LUC matrix using cadastral maps, which provide useful data for consistent land-use classification in South Korea. The LUC matrix was divided into remaining and land-converted settlements between 2005 and 2019 with estimated areas of 878,393.17 and 203,260.42 ha, respectively. CO2 emissions, according to Intergovernmental Panel Climate Change’s Guideline Tier 1, were estimated at 18.94 MtCO2 for 15 years, with an annual CO2 emission of 1.26 MtCO2 yr−1. CO2 emission by land conversion type was found to be the largest at 16.93 MtCO2 in the case of forest converted to settlements. In addition, the area with the largest CO2 emission density was Sejong-si at 7.59 tCO2/ha. Conclusion Based on reviewing available spatial data in South Korea, it is possible to improve Approach 3, which is more advanced than previous Approach 1 in the settlement category. In addition, the national GHG inventory also can be estimated by our constructed LUC matrix and activity data in this study. Under the many discussions about developing the Approach system, this study can provide in-detail information on developing LUC in South Korea in the settlement category as well as suggesting a methodology for constructing the LUC matrix for countries with similar problems to South Korea.

Background: Five ministries are involved in estimating the greenhouse gas (GHG) inventory in the South Korean land use, land-use change, and forestry (LULUCF) sectors. However, these ministries have not established a consistent land classification standard between land-use categories. Therefore, the GHG inventory is estimated at the approach 1 level with no spatial clarity between land-use categories. Moreover, the settlements category is not estimated because activity data and the spatial scope are lacking. This study proposed a methodology for constructing a land-use change (LUC) matrix in the LULUCF sector for improving approach level and estimating the GHG inventory in the settlements. Result: We examined 10 sets of spatiotemporal data in South Korea to construct a LUC matrix. To maintain consistency in the spatial land classification, we constructed a LUC matrix using cadastral maps, which provide useful data for consistent land-use classification in South Korea. The LUC matrix was divided into remaining and land-converted settlements between 2005 and 2019 with estimated areas of 878,393.17 and 203,260.42 ha, respectively. CO2 emissions, according to Intergovernmental Panel Climate Change's Guideline Tier 1, were estimated at 18.94 MtCO2 for 15 years, with an annual CO2 emission of 1.26 MtCO2 yr−1. CO2 emission by land conversion type was found to be the largest at 16.93 MtCO2 in the case of forest converted to settlements. In addition, the area with the largest CO2 emission density was Sejong-si at 7.59 tCO2/ha. Conclusion: Based on reviewing available spatial data in South Korea, it is possible to improve Approach 3, which is more advanced than previous Approach 1 in the settlement category. In addition, the national GHG inventory also can be estimated by our constructed LUC matrix and activity data in this study. Under the many discussions about developing the Approach system, this study can provide in-detail information on developing LUC in South Korea in the settlement category as well as suggesting a methodology for constructing the LUC matrix for countries with similar problems to South Korea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With global greenhouse gas emissions on the rise, the higher education sector has recognised the part it must play in reducing its carbon footprint, setting an example for others to follow in the global fight against climate change. In 2019 University College Cork undertook the complex task of designing and developing a Climate Action Plan, beginning with the compilation of a detailed inventory of the university's greenhouse gas emissions and followed by a period of engaged research during which potential climate action measures were identified by key stakeholders. In response to the start of the Covid-19 pandemic and introduction of public health restrictions, a structured dialogue – modified Delphi – approach was employed as part of the engaged research. This mixed-methods approach proved successful at identifying a number of potential opportunities for reducing the university's carbon footprint, with the structured dialogue method in particular offering the researchers numerous advantages for conducting engaged research during the unique circumstances arising as a result of the Covid-19 pandemic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High levels of greenhouse gas (GHG) emission, coupled with native forest and jungle deforestation, have led to a worldwide temperature increase. Cities are home to over half of the world's population and generate over 80% of GHG emissions. Consequently, urban areas must become facilitation centers in the battle against climate change. The main objective of this manuscript is to estimate the carbon footprint of the La Serena-Coquimbo conurbation, seeking to determine the contribution of the area to climate change. To this end, the following steps were taken: Identification of sectors and subsectors contributing to GHG emissions in the conurbation; gathering data on selected sectors to develop a GHG inventory; and the quantification of the carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2eq) in selected sectors. The results revealed that 2,102,887 t CO2eq were generated in the conurbation by the stationary energy, transport, and waste sectors, the former being the largest contributor. We conclude that there is a need for greater environmental development in cities in order to facilitate formulation and implementation of GHG reduction proposals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The protection, management and restoration of vegetated ecosystems on land and in the ocean (‘natural climate solutions’) can be a useful strategy for reducing net greenhouse gas emissions to help limit global warming. Their potential contribution to reducing net emissions has led to the development of policies and financial incentives for their protection and restoration. These have in turn created a set of expectations among some stakeholders, and interest in expanding these to encompass other ecosystems. However, there are specific rules about how abatement is calculated in international policy and climate finance, and the frameworks and terminology associated with them are often complex. This can be a barrier to stakeholders who want to leverage the potential of natural climate solutions, sometimes leading to incongruence between realised and anticipated benefits. In this article, we attempt to outline some of the key international policy and carbon market frameworks for coastal ‘blue carbon’ ecosystems, and the extent to which different ecosystems are accommodated. Currently, among the coastal ecosystems, only mangrove forests, seagrass meadows, and tidal marshes are typically considered in international policy and carbon market frameworks. The defining feature of these ecosystems is that the foundation species are plants that grow in sediment (soil). They are the only coastal ecosystems currently included in IPCC guidelines for national greenhouse gas inventories, and in compliance and voluntary carbon markets. There is interest in potentially including other marine ecosystems, such as kelp forests and unvegetated tidal flats, into carbon accounting frameworks, but there are unresolved questions about whether sequestration and storage of carbon by these ecosystems meets the rigorous standards required. Voluntary carbon markets have greater flexibility than mechanisms linked to national greenhouse gas inventories, and so might be early implementers of expanding methods to include other ecosystems. Incorporating coastal ecosystems into national greenhouse gas inventory is a useful action countries can take that will likely help generate incentives for protection and restoration of these important ecosystems.

Key message: Using satellite-based maps, Ceccherini et al. (Nature 583:72-77, 2020) report abruptly increasing harvested area estimates in several EU countries beginning in 2015. Using more than 120,000 National Forest Inventory observations to analyze the satellite-based map, we show that it is not harvested area but the map's ability to detect harvested areas that abruptly increases after 2015 in Finland and Sweden. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Waste heat utilization is shown to have the potential to decrease greenhouse gas emissions globally. The purpose of this case study is to illustrate how the utilization of waste heat to decrease municipal boundary greenhouse gas emissions may increase such emissions within wider boundaries. The case study assesses the utilization of waste heat generated by a data center. In this paper, we analyze the implications within Scopes 1-3 of the Greenhouse Gas Protocol together with attributional and consequential life cycle assessment principals. Only Scope 1 showed negative greenhouse gas emission implications. In order to achieve negative Scope 2 emissions, approximately half of the waste heat would need to be utilized, which is the purpose of further site development. In order for negative Scope 3 emission implications, electricity production changes are needed or local municipal replaceable greenhouse gas emissions would need to be much higher.

Although previous studies have quantified carbon dioxide emissions embodied in products traded internationally, there has been limited attention to other greenhouse gases such as methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O). Following IPCC guidelines, we estimate non-CO2 emissions from beef, pork and chicken produced in 237 countries over the period 1990-2010, and assign these emissions to the country where the meat is ultimately consumed. We find that, between 1990 and 2010, an average of 32.8 Mt CO2-eq emissions (using 100 year global warming potentials) are embodied in beef, pork and chicken traded internationally. Further, over the 20 year period, the quantity of CO2-eq emissions embodied in traded meat increased by 19%. The largest trade flows of emissions embodied in meat were from Brazil and Argentina to Russia (2.8 and 1.4 Mt of CO2-eq, respectively). Trade flows within the European region are also substantial: beef and pork exported from France embodied 3.3 Mt and 0.4 Mt of CO2-eq, respectively. Emissions factor of meat production (i.e. CO2-eq emissions per kg of meat) produced depend on ambient temperature, development level, livestock category (e.g. cattle, pork, and chicken) and livestock management practices. Thus, trade may result in an overall increase of GHG emissions when meat-consuming countries import meat from countries with a greater emissions intensity of meat production rather than producing the meat domestically. Comparing the emissions intensity of meat production of trading partners, we assess trade flows according to whether they tend to reduce or increase global emissions from meat production.

Inventories of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from wildfire provide essential information to the state of California, USA, and other governments that have enacted emission reductions. Wildfires can release a substantial amount of GHGs and other compounds to the atmosphere, so recent increases in fire activity may be increasing GHG emissions. Quantifying wildfire emissions however can be difficult due to inherent variability in fuel loads and consumption and a lack of field data of fuel consumption by wildfire. We compare a unique set of fuel data collected immediately before and after six wildfires in coniferous forests of California to fuel consumption predictions of the first-order fire effects model (FOFEM), based on two different available fuel characterizations. We found strong regional differences in the performance of different fuel characterizations, with FOFEM overestimating the fuel consumption to a greater extent in the Klamath Mountains than in the Sierra Nevada. Inaccurate fuel load inputs caused the largest differences between predicted and observed fuel consumption. Fuel classifications tended to overestimate duff load and underestimate litter load, leading to differences in predicted emissions for some pollutants. When considering total ground and surface fuels, modeled consumption was fairly accurate on average, although the range of error in estimates of plot level consumption was very large. These results highlight the importance of fuel load input to the accuracy of modeled fuel consumption and GHG emissions from wildfires in coniferous forests. ©2014. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved.

The Cuajimalpa campus of the Autonomous Metropolitan University (UAM) is located in the western region of Mexico City. In 2016, its global average population (students, faculty and staff) was around 2750 people. Campus policies include sustainability as one of its main aims. To evaluate and eventually reduce the environmental impact of the campus, its greenhouse gas (GHG) inventory was assessed and the carbon footprint was calculated, using the GHG protocol (GHGP): Scope 1: direct GHG emissions; Scope 2: indirect GHG emissions; and Scope 3: other indirect GHG emissions, on a calendar year basis. Scope 1 includes mobile and stationary sources and leakage of refrigerants; Scope 2 includes electrical energy usage; Scope 3 includes consumption of paper, food, water, gases, cleaning products, solvents, wastewater treatment, municipal and hazardous wastes and academic travel. In 2016, the campus produced around 3000 tons of CO2 equivalent, with Scope 1, 2 and 3 accounting for 4%, 24% and 72%, respectively. Emissions analysis by activity indicated 51% for commuting; 24% for electricity usage; 14% for academic travel; 11% for other activities. The inventory will aid the establishment of policies for reduction and mitigation of GHG, resulting in environmental and potential economic benefits.

Greenhouse gas (GHG) inventory has played a fundamental role in providing scientific political-making evidence in mitigation. For a particular case study, Japan offers a positive performance in reducing GHG emissions since an early age, and the GHG Inventory Office of Japan was established in 2002 and is making efforts on publishing both “National GHGs Inventory Report of Japan” and “GHGs Emissions Data of Japan” annually. This paper covers local Japanese inventory development from a global range to a domestic level and offers its general reporting criteria nationwide. Furthermore, through a case study of recalculating 2010 Saga Prefecture’s GHG emission, local inventory methodology is investigated in six GHGs (including CO2, CH4, N2O, HFC, PFC, and SF6) and forestry sectors. In this section, recalculating methodologies, especially regarding calculated fields and basic formulations categorized by GHG types, are introduced in detail. Then, it provides limitations and improvements of the inventory reformation. Further, future research directions are discussed as well. This research exhibits an inventory method at the local scale and offers its improvements by the author to provide some experiences and lessons for the research and mitigation policy-making practices in other parts of the world.

The transparency framework under the Paris Agreement hinges to a large extent on the capacities for developing countries to regularly update their national greenhouse gas (GHG) inventories. The present study aims to understand how such capacities are developed at the organizational level and how this process is influenced by changes in the institutional environments. To this end, we selected the case of Indonesia, a country where the task of producing a national GHG inventory was once outsourced to experts but is now managed within the Ministry of Environment and Forestry. This paper probes why and how this is possible through two different lenses: a model of strategic issue diagnosis and the framework for implementation analysis. Based on data obtained through participant observation, interviews, and document reviews, both approaches were vital in studying the importance of clarity and consistency of basic policy decisions. This study also highlighted the role of capacity development and found that these factors interacted with each other to create positive impacts on the implementation of a national GHG inventory in Indonesia. The analytical frameworks we used can be applied to contexts in other countries. While the model of strategic issue diagnosis enables us to check each aspect of issue interpretations by decision-makers and other organizational participants (urgency, feasibility, and interdependence), the framework for implementation analysis assists with determining if the necessary conditions exist for effective policy implementation. These results are useful for governments and/or donor agencies to identify priority areas of intervention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A transparency framework has been enhanced under the Paris Agreement. Developing countries need to develop the capacity to regularly update national greenhouse gas (GHG) inventories, thereby tracking progress toward climate change mitigation goals under their nationally determined contributions (NDCs). Although much study in recent years has been focused on the challenges faced by developing countries in building the long-term institutional capabilities required for more frequent inventory reporting, little work has been done to analyze the institutional linkage between the national GHG inventories and NDCs in the respective countries. Against this backdrop, we examined the cases of Vietnam and the Philippines. Through desktop reviews and a series of interviews conducted in 2018, the present study characterized their institutional designs for the national GHG inventory. It also evaluated observed outcomes of institutional performance in the following dimensions: (1) the frequency and quality of national GHG inventory reporting and (2) the effectiveness of the national GHG inventory at informing the process to formulate mitigation actions under NDCs. The study found that there are differences in performance outcomes between the two countries, which may be linked to the differences in institutional designs. It also found potential trade-offs: A good performance outcome in one dimension may not necessarily translate into a similar result in the other. The findings have implications for transparency-related capacity building assistance: A sound understanding of institutional arrangements and their potential consequences is important for development partners to facilitate the interplay between the national GHG inventory and NDCs in developing countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Waste heat utilization is shown to have the potential to decrease greenhouse gas emissions globally. The purpose of this case study is to illustrate how the utilization of waste heat to decrease municipal boundary greenhouse gas emissions may increase such emissions within wider boundaries. The case study assesses the utilization of waste heat generated by a data center. In this paper, we analyze the implications within Scopes 1-3 of the Greenhouse Gas Protocol together with attributional and consequential life cycle assessment principals. Only Scope 1 showed negative greenhouse gas emission implications. In order to achieve negative Scope 2 emissions, approximately half of the waste heat would need to be utilized, which is the purpose of further site development. In order for negative Scope 3 emission implications, electricity production changes are needed or local municipal replaceable greenhouse gas emissions would need to be much higher. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper discusses the procedures and results of constructing a greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions inventory for South Africa, using the official national energy balance for 1998. In doing so, the paper offers a snapshot of the South African energy supply and demand profile and encompassing greenhouse gas emissions profiles, disaggregated into 40 economic sectors, for the reference year. For convenience, energy supply and use are reported in both native units and terra joule (TJ), while emissions are expressed in carbon dioxide equivalents and reported in giga-gram (Gg). While carbon dioxide makes an overwhelming contribution to global anthropogenic GHG emissions, the inclusion of methane and nitrous oxide offers considerable richness to the analysis of climate change policies. Applying the energy balances, it was possible to compile a comprehensive emissions inventory using a consistent methodology across all sectors of the economy. The inventory allows the economic analyst to model various economic policies either with fuel as an input to production, or the consumption of fuel or the emissions generated during combustion, as a base of the analysis. The dominant role of coal as a source of energy, with a total primary energy supply (TPES) of 3.3 million TJ or 70 per cent of the total TPES, is clearly shown. Emissions from coal combustion (263 783 Gg of carbon dioxide equivalents or 74.7 per cent of total emissions) are henceforth the largest contributor to total emissions, estimated to be 352 932 Gg carbon dioxide equivalents.

Combustion of lignite and coal comprises the most important part of CO2 emissions in the Czech Republic (CR). The IPCC methodology on national greenhouse gas inventories provides default values of emission factors for the basic tier (the simplest level of methodological approach), including those for lignite and coal, which do not represent the specific national conditions. Therefore, this methodology indicates that more accurate country-specific emission factors based on national data should be used for the significant categories of sources, called key categories. This paper presents the results of recent research that was concerned with updating country-specific emission factors, which would be able to accurately describe CO2 emissions from combustion of coal and lignite in the Czech Republic for the whole time period from 1990 to the present year (2016). Development of these factors was based on the evaluation of relevant correlation dependence of emission factor on net calorific value. In addition, the research was supplemented by assessment of relevant country-specific oxidation factors for lignite and coal.

Pig and poultry production in China had experienced considerable changes from 1960 to 2010. The present study aimed to evaluate the effects of these changes on greenhouse gas emission inventories (expressed as CO2 equivalent) from these two sectors. The inventories included methane emissions from enteric fermentation, methane and nitrous oxide production from manure management. The greenhouse gas emissions from these sources in 2010 in pig sector were 17, 62 and 21%, respectively, and that in poultry sector (including chicken, duck, goose and others) were 1, 18 and 81%, respectively. Total CO2 equivalent increased from 1960 to 2010 in both pig (11 582 to 55 564 Gg yr−1) and poultry (1 497 to 14 873 Gg yr−1) sectors. Within poultry sector, emissions from chicken, duck, goose and others accounted for 74, 15, 11 and 0.01% in 2010, respectively. However, during the last 50 years, these emissions continuously reduced when related to production of 1 kg of pork (8.01 to 1.14 kg kg−1), poultry meat (1.19 to 0.37 kg kg−1) and egg (0.47 to 0.33 kg kg−1), which is mainly associated with the continuous improvement in production efficiency in all management systems. These results provide benchmark information for Chinese authorities to develop appropriate policies and mitigation strategies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from pig and poultry sectors.

The Cuajimalpa campus of the Autonomous Metropolitan University (UAM) is located in the western region of Mexico City. In 2016, its global average population (students, faculty and staff) was around 2750 people. Campus policies include sustainability as one of its main aims. To evaluate and eventually reduce the environmental impact of the campus, its greenhouse gas (GHG) inventory was assessed and the carbon footprint was calculated, using the GHG protocol (GHGP): Scope 1: direct GHG emissions; Scope 2: indirect GHG emissions; and Scope 3: other indirect GHG emissions, on a calendar year basis. Scope 1 includes mobile and stationary sources and leakage of refrigerants; Scope 2 includes electrical energy usage; Scope 3 includes consumption of paper, food, water, gases, cleaning products, solvents, wastewater treatment, municipal and hazardous wastes and academic travel. In 2016, the campus produced around 3000 tons of CO2 equivalent, with Scope 1, 2 and 3 accounting for 4%, 24% and 72%, respectively. Emissions analysis by activity indicated 51% for commuting; 24% for electricity usage; 14% for academic travel; 11% for other activities. The inventory will aid the establishment of policies for reduction and mitigation of GHG, resulting in environmental and potential economic benefits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Land use and land use change calculation matrix is one of the most important parts of the national greenhouse gas (GHG) inventory in land use, land use change and forestry (LULUCF) sector providing information of an overall summary and changes in land use at a national level over a specified period of time. Information on land use and land use changes are further used to calculate other parameters important for determination of GHG emissions and carbon stock changes in living and dead biomass, soil and litter, as well as basic information on the impact of applied climate change mitigation measures. Calculations of land use change can be carried out in a partly automated process using GIS tools, which makes calculations easier to perform, reduces time consumption for this task and occasional mistakes due to manual operations. The aim of this study is to improve the methodology for development of land use and land use change matrix in the national GHG inventory system using geospatial data of National forest inventory (NFI) and auxiliary data sources. The developed system uses geospatial NFI data and auxiliary information provided by the land parcel information system (LPIS) and stand-wise forest inventory, and it improves accuracy and consistency of the land use and land use change matrix, providing the ability to apply the same land use accounting method for the whole reporting period since 1990 without a significant increase of uncertainty. The developed method determines land use changes in a 5-year period by comparing three successive NFI cycles. To determine the actual land use category in a particular year, we adjusted weights for different land use categories. Interpolation is used to determine year-by-year transitions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

National greenhouse gas inventories often use variations of the gain–loss approach whereby emissions are estimated as the products of estimates of areas of land-use change characterized as activity data and estimates of emissions per unit area characterized as emission factors. Although the term emissions is often intuitively understood to mean release of greenhouse gases from terrestrial sources to the atmosphere, in fact, emission factors can also be negative, meaning removal of the gases from the atmosphere to terrestrial sinks. For remote and inaccessible forests for which ground sampling is difficult if not impossible, emission factors may be based on map-based estimates of biomass or biomass change obtained from regional maps. For the special case of complete deforestation, the emission factor for the aboveground biomass pool is simply mean aboveground, live-tree, biomass per unit area prior to the deforestation. If biomass maps are used for these purposes, estimates must still comply with the first IPCC good practice guideline regarding accuracy relative to the true value and the second guideline regarding uncertainty. Accuracy assessment for a map-based estimate entails comparison of the estimate to a second estimate obtained using independent reference data. Assuming ground sampling is not feasible, a map of greater quality than the regional map may be considered as a source of reference data where greater quality connotes attributes such as finer resolution and/or greater accuracy. For a local, sub-regional study area in Minnesota in the USA, the accuracy of an estimate of mean aboveground, live-tree biomass per unit area (AGB, Mg/ha) obtained from a coarser resolution, regional, MODIS-based biomass map was assessed using reference data sampled from a finer resolution, local, airborne laser scanning (ALS)-based biomass map. The rationale for a local assessment of a regional map is that, although assessment of a regional map would be difficult for the entire extent of the map, it can likely be assessed for multiple local sub-regions in which case expected local regional accuracy for the entire map can perhaps be inferred. For this study, the local assessment was in the form of a test of the hypothesis that the local sub-regional estimate from the regional map did not deviate from the local true value. A hybrid approach to inference was used whereby design-based inferential techniques were used to estimate uncertainty due to sampling from the finer resolution map, and model-based inferential techniques were used to estimate uncertainty resulting from using the finer resolution map unit values which were subject to prediction error as reference data. The test revealed no statistically significant difference between the MODIS-based and ALS-based map estimates, thereby indicating that for the local sub-region, the regional, MODIS-based estimate complied with the first IPCC good practice guideline for accuracy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Countries must internationally report emissions/removals. • Estimates and confidence intervals alone do not characterize the quality of the information. • A checklist of survey-based information is proposed to reporting countries. • General survey information, error sources and propagated error are relevant in the list. • Uncertainty aversion may preclude countries from providing accurate estimates. The need to provide transparent and reliable Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emission estimates is strongly emphasized in the context of international reporting under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Paris Agreement. Yet it is difficult to find specific guidance about what information is really needed to evaluate the quality of the emission factors or activity data used for GHG emission estimates. The most commonly used indicator of the reliability of an estimation procedure (and one of the few indicators explicitly mentioned in the 2006 IPCC guidelines) is the so-called confidence interval, usually at a confidence level of 90% or 95%. This interval, however, is unlikely to be a meaningful indicator of the quality of the estimate, if not associated with additional information about the estimation and survey procedures (such as on the sampling design, measurement protocols or quality control routines, among others). We provide a review of the main sources of error that can have an impact on the precision and accuracy of the estimation of both emission factors and activity data and a list of the essential survey features that should be reported to properly evaluate the quality of a GHG emission estimate. Such list is also applicable to the reporting of national forest inventories and of area estimation of activity data, and includes the case in which confidence intervals are obtained using error propagation techniques. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fugitive methane emissions from coal mining activities have been frequently talked about in the literature due to concerns about climate change. However, indirect and direct CO2 emissions may also result from coal mining processes. The indirect CO2 emissions include those from diesel combustion from equipment while direct CO2 emissions are a relatively new area of research and have been recently brought into the purview of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) inventory guidelines. We discuss some of the preliminary results which can give some directions into the potential research areas for better accounting of greenhouse gas emissions from coal mining activities. These have been derived from practical studies undertaken at selected coal mines in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Under the context of the elevated greenhouse gases, how to reduce carbon emissions and increase carbon absorption is the focus of current research on climate change. Based on data of Chinese crude steel production from 1963 to 2016 and greenhouse gas inventory method, we established steel slag carbon sequestration calculation method. The steel slag carbon sequestration from 1963 to 2016 was estimated and the uncertainty analysis was made. The results showed that annual carbon sink of steel slag in China increased from 3.75 x 10³ t C in 1963 to 1359.32 x 10³ t C in 2016. The steel slag accumulative carbon sink was 15x106 t C, with about ±30.4% total uncertainty during 1963-2016. The annual carbon sink of steel slag was composed of carbon sink of the current year steel slag and the previous years. Due to the dense structure and low carbonation rate of ' steel slag, the carbon sink of the current year was small, accounting for 37 % of the total, while that of the previous years were relatively large, accounting for 63% of the total. Although annual carbon sink of steel slag was small, the long-term accumulative carbon sink for steel slag was very considerable, which could not be ignored. Future research should reiine carbonation rate of steel slag under different environmental conditions to reduce steel slag carbon accounting uncertainty, promote the development of carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology with steel slag as raw material to increase eiiective carbon sequestration, which would provide scientific support ior China's international negotiations on climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The gain-loss approach for greenhouse gas inventories requires estimates of areas of human activity and estimates of emissions per unit area for each activity. Stratified sampling and estimation have emerged as a popular and useful statistical approach for estimation of activity areas. With this approach, a map depicting classes of activity is used to stratify the area of interest. For each map class used as a stratum, map units are randomly selected and assessed with respect to an attribute such as forest/non-forest or forest land cover change. Ground observations are generally accepted as the most accurate source of information for these assessments but may be cost-prohibitive to acquire for remote and inaccessible forest regions. In lieu of ground observations, visual interpretations of remotely sensed data such as aerial imagery or satellite imagery are often used with the caveat that the interpretations must be of greater quality than the map data. An unresolved issue pertains to the effects of interpreter error on the bias and precision of the stratified estimators of activity areas. For a 7500-km 2 study area in north central Minnesota in the United States of America, combinations of forest inventory plot observations, visual interpretations of aerial imagery, and two forest/non-forest maps were used to assess the effects of interpreter error on stratified estimators of proportion forest and corresponding standard errors. The primary objectives related to estimating the bias and precision of the stratified estimators in the presence of interpreter errors, identifying factors and the levels of those factors that affect bias and precision, and facilitating planning to circumvent and/or mitigate the effects of bias. The primary results were that interpreter error induces bias into the stratified estimators of both land cover class proportion and its standard error. Bias increased with greater inequality in stratum weights, smaller map and interpreter accuracies, fewer interpreters and greater correlations among interpreters. Failure to account for interpreter error produced stratified standard errors that under-estimated actual standard errors by factors as great as 2.3. Greater number of interpreters mitigated the effects of interpreter error on proportion forest estimates, and a hybrid variance estimator accounted for the effects on standard errors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]