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Green roofs are promoted to provide ecosystem services and to mitigate climate change in urban areas. This is largely due to their supposed benefits for biodiversity, rainwater management, evaporative cooling, and carbon sequestration. One scientific challenge is quantifying the various contributions of green roofs using reliable methods. In this context, the green roof module already running in the Town Energy Balance urban canopy model for water and energy exchanges was improved by implementing the CO2 fluxes and the carbon sequestration potential. This parametrisation combines the ISBA (Interaction Between Soil Biosphere and Atmosphere) photosynthesis, biomass and soil respiration module with the green roof module in order to quantify the net CO2 amount emitted or fixed by the green roof over a time period. The parametrisation was fully achieved by using data of an extensive Sedum non irrigated green roof located at the Berlin BER airport in Germany from 2016 to 2020. The five years of measurements were used to do a sensitivity analysis of the photosynthesis module parameters in order to classify the parameters according to their influence, followed by a calibration over the most important parameters and evaluation. Results show a good agreement of the simulated leaf area index and CO2 fluxes with in situ observations, with good diurnal, seasonal and inter-annual variability, even if the model tends to be overly responsive on the day to day variability. The model reproduces well the Net Ecosystem Exchange which provides a reliable estimation of the annual carbon sequestration. Those results are encouraging in quantifying the potential of carbon sequestration of green roofs and open up the possibility of applying the new parametrisation on a city-wide scale to evaluate green roof scenarios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biochar is a promising material with a wide range of applications. One area of application is as an additive in substrates for green roofs. Green roofs are a way of mitigating climate change, with biochar offering an opportunity to further enhance this benefit and upscale practice. In this field study, the effect of a 5-vol.% addition of wood-based biochar to a green roof substrate is evaluated with respect to a water balance (reduced runoff, increased evapotranspiration, increased plant available water) and hydrophysical properties. Substrate, with and without biochar amendment, was used in different green roof sections. Laboratory hydrophysical analysis, in-situ Volumetric Water Content and meteorological measurements, alongside vegetation monitoring, enabled the development of a 1D Hydrus water balance model and revealed differences between both of the surveyed green roofs. The study demonstrated that the addition of biochar to the substrate improved its hydrophysical properties, leading to increased water retention (7.7% increase in maximum water capacity) and enhanced vegetation growth The biochar amendment resulted in the minor changes in grain size distribution (increase in the 0.01 to 0.1 mm fraction) and increased substrate moisture, which is related to an increase in the plant-available water content (14.2%). This was observable in the retention curves and resulted in an increased moisture availability for plants, leading to an increase in vegetation cover in areas with biochar. The numerical analysis using Hydrus-1D soil hydraulic model showed that the inclusion of biochar in the substrate resulted in a 23.5% increase in evapotranspiration and a 54.7% decrease in runoff. These findings suggest that the addition of biochar to the green roof substrate could enhance the system's capacity to retain water, reduce runoff and bulk density, and increase the amount of water available for plant growth. The study provides evidence for the potential of wood-based biochar as a sustainable and effective addition to green roof substrates, contributing to the development of more resilient and sustainable urban environments. Highlights: The addition of biochar to the rooftop substrate (ROOFChar®) increased water retention and enhanced vegetation growth due to increased PAW. The model outputs demonstrated a 23.5% increase in evapotranspiration and a 54.7% decrease in runoff for ROOFChar®. The effect of biochar admixture was verified in a real-life condition on a high-rise building and interpreted by a numerical model. ROOFChar® use in rooftop meant better water retention with lower static load on the building. The use ROOFChar® in green roofs led to the development of more resilient and sustainable urban environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Green roofs provide foraging and nesting resources for pollinators that would otherwise be absent. However, green roofs are isolated from ground level, limiting habitat to only species that can reach them. In Eastern North America, green roof design often prioritises water conservation and plant survival, and so species in the genera Sedum and Phedimus (hereafter, stonecrops) that are hardy and drought tolerant are mainly planted. The purpose of this study was to investigate how building height and bloom amount shape flower‐visiting insect communities on extensive green roofs (EGRs). Bees, wasps, and flies (hereafter, pollinators) were surveyed on five plant species (four non‐native stonecrops: Sedum acre, Sedum album, Phedimus kamtschaticus, Phedimus spurius, and one native herbaceous plant: Rudbeckia hirta) from six EGRs and two replicated ground‐level control sites in 2019. We identified 26 pollinator species and found that stonecrops and Rudbeckia showed distinct blooming periods, with the stonecrops flowering from June to August and Rudbeckia from August to September. Percent flowering stonecrops during the early bloom was significantly positively correlated with bee abundance and species richness. Pollinator communities determined from distinct stonecrop species were compositionally more alike to one another than R. hirta. The inclusion of R. hirta lengthened the bloom period of stonecrop‐dominated EGRs and attracted five additional bee species. We further determined that pollinator abundance and species richness were negatively correlated with building height. Despite its limited scope, our data suggest that pollinator habitat design on EGRs should prioritise low‐rise buildings and flowering species with abundant blooms that occur at different times than stonecrops, ensuring complementary flowering periods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Roof and facade greening infiltration system were simulated to study the purification effect of different roof greening substrates and facade greening substrates on rainwater runoff. The results showed that the pollutant removal rate of glass light stone + ceramsite + river sand was the highest, and the removal rates of total nitrogen (TN), ammonia nitrogen, total phosphorus (TP) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) were 41.31%, 55.07%, 43.65% and 36.36%, respectively. The purification effect of glass light stone + ceramsite as roof greening substrate was not good. The removal rate of TP by glass light stone + ceramsite + peat soil and peat soil was more than 90%, but the removal efficiency of nitrogen was not high. The purification effect of biochar and non-soil was better in the facade greening substrate. The removal rates of ammonia nitrogen and TP by biochar were 98.45% and 92.93%, respectively. The removal effects of nitrogen and phosphorus by rock wool, rock wool + glass light stone and carbon wool were worse. The removal rates of TN and ammonia nitrogen by rock wool treatment were-20.42% and 5.06%, respectively. While, the removal rates of TN and TP by rock wool + glass light stone were negative. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Intensifying urbanization and climate change have highlighted the growing role of low-impact development (LID) practices in urban rainwater management systems. However, there is still room for improvement to optimally deploy LID practices, especially under different confluence relationships. In this study, 36 scenarios were designed based on different rainfall conditions, LID practices, confluence relationships, and locations, which were analyzed using hybrid hydraulic and water quality modeling. The following key results were obtained: (1) Series II was the main confluence path in the study area. The greenbelt occupied a large share; accordingly, the control of waterlogging and non-point source pollution in series II was better in the designed rainfall scenarios. (2) In the designed rainfall scenarios, series I had the best mitigation effect on waterlogging and non-point source pollution, with 24.5%, 16.4%, and 15.2% lower values than those of the series II and Parallel scenarios. There were no significant differences among the three confluence relationships under extreme rainfall. (3) Among the different LID practices, bioretention cells contributed to the maximum reduction in pollution (29.91%). Green roofs and permeable pavement resulted in the maximum reductions in total runoff (27.99% and 22.94%, respectively), and permeable pavement also reduced pollution by 26.50%. These results suggest that the pavement at some waterlogging points should be replaced with permeable pavement to avoid the negative effects of future extreme rainfall. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Featured Application: Hydrological modelling using HEC-HMS to model runoff changes associated with different nature-based solutions. The solutions implemented into the model were green roofs, permeable paving and retention ponds. Many regions in Europe face increasing issues with flooding and droughts due to changing rainfall patterns caused by climate change. For example, higher rainfall intensities increase urban flooding. Nature-based solutions (NbS) are suggested as a key mitigation strategy for floods. This study aims to address and mitigate the challenges faced in Tivoli natural park in Ljubljana regarding high peak discharges and low-flow issues in the creek entering the sewer system. The study involves setting up, calibrating and validating a Hydrologic Engineering Centre–Hydrologic Modelling System (HEC-HMS) model using available data. This study analyses NbS, such as small ponds, green roofs and permeable paving, to reduce peak discharge. Runoff was reduced by an average of 32.4% with all NbS implemented and peak discharge by 20 L/s. Permeable parking performed best, with an average runoff reduction of 6.4%, compared to 4.8% for permeable streets and 5.9% for green roofs. The ponds reduced peak discharge, although their effectiveness varied between rainfall events. Rainfall events with higher volumes and durations tended to overwhelm the proposed solutions, reducing their effectiveness. The ability of HEC-HMS to model NbS is also discussed. The curve number (CN) parameter and impervious % alterations to simulate NbS provided quantitative data on changes in runoff and discharge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous research has demonstrated that the multiple environmental benefits of green roofs are primarily associated with their evaporative cooling effect. However, current studies on green roof evapotranspiration (ET) mainly focus on extensive green roofs, and the evaporative cooling effect of intensive green roofs is still unclear. Using the intensive green roof of AQUA City in Nanjing as a case study, this research employs the three-temperature (3T) model combined with high-resolution thermal infrared imagery obtained via an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) to estimate the ET of different vegetation types. The study aims to explore the spatiotemporal variations in surface temperature, evapotranspiration (ET) rate, and evaporative cooling rate for various vegetation types under typical seasonal (summer and winter) and weather conditions (sunny, cloudy, and rainy before and after rainy days). The results showed that: (1) the ET rates and evaporative cooling effects of different types of vegetation differed significantly, with shrubs having the fastest ET rates, followed by arbors, and grasslands having relatively low ET rates. (2) Solar radiation and air temperature are the most crucial meteorological parameters for inducing ET on green roofs. In this study, the evaporative cooling performance showed the patterns of summer > winter and sunny > cloudy > rainy days. (3) In the spatial distribution of tree and irrigation plant groups, some low-temperature diffusion phenomena to the adjacent small microenvironments were evident, while the diffusion effect in winter is smaller and mainly shows the opposite warming characteristics. This study offers a valuable reference for quantifying the ET and evaporative cooling effects of various vegetation types on intensive green roofs, facilitating the optimization of vegetation configuration and supporting sustainable urban development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Urbanization increases the number of impervious surfaces in watersheds, reducing infiltration and evapotranspiration, which increases runoff volumes and the risks of flooding and the pollution of water resources. Nature-based solutions (NBS) mitigate these effects by managing water volume and quality, restoring the hydrological cycle, and creating sustainable livelihoods that can promote socioeconomic equity by providing green space. In light of the aforementioned information, this study analyzes the hydrological response of NBS in La Guapil, a densely populated and socioeconomically vulnerable area of Costa Rica with approximately 80% impervious surfaces, focusing on their effectiveness in stormwater management and improving hydrological conditions. Field data from the study area's storm drainage system, as well as hydrological analyses, were collected and processed to evaluate RCP8.5 climate change scenarios using the Clausius–Clapeyron (CC) relationship. Three scenarios were proposed: (1) the "status quo", reflecting current conditions, (2) green roofs and green improvements, and (3) detention ponds and green improvements, evaluated using the SWMM, with the latter scenario also using the Iber model. Simulations showed that Scenario 2 achieved the greatest reduction in peak flow (53.74%) and runoff volume (57.60%) compared to Scenario 3 (peak: 28.37%; volume: 56.42%). Both scenarios demonstrate resilience to climate change projections. The results of this study provide a foundation for further research into NBS in Costa Rica and other comparable regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sustainable roofing configurations, including green and white roofs, can reduce rooftop surface temperatures compared to conventional surfaces and can therefore enhance photovoltaic (PV) system performance due to the temperature dependence of PV cells. Previous research, primarily experimental, recognized the synergy of combining PV with green or cool roofs. However, the influence of geographic and climatic factors on the performance of these combined systems, particularly in future climates affected by climate change, remains unclear. This work integrates three roof configurations (gravel, green, and white) into rooftop solar energy modeling across thirteen cities with different climate types, under current and future climate scenarios. Results indicate limited efficiency gains (< 2%) across all cities and climates, challenging previous findings. Yield is expected to increase in some cities receiving more solar irradiation in the future but decrease in others due to rising temperatures. Green and cool roofs can partially offset the effects of climate change on yield. PV‐white roofs consistently outperform PV‐green roofs, with the performance gap expected to widen in future climates. PV‐green roofs excel in tropical climates with high irradiation and precipitation levels. Overall, the outcomes of this study inform the design and planning of sustainable buildings in response to climate change challenges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

(1) Background: Urban villages in Guangzhou are high-density communities with challenging outdoor thermal environments, which significantly impact residents' thermal comfort. Addressing these issues is crucial for improving the quality of life and mitigating heat stress in such environments. (2) Methods: This study utilized a validated ENVI-met microclimate model to explore the synergistic cooling effects of roof greening and facade greening. Three greening types—total greening, facade greening, and roof greening—were analyzed for their impacts on air temperature, mean radiant temperature, and physiologically equivalent temperature (PET) at a pedestrian height of 1.5 m under varying green coverage scenarios. (3) Results: The findings showed that total greening exhibited the greatest cooling potential, especially under high coverage (≥50%), reducing PET by approximately 2.5 °C, from 53.5 °C to 51.0 °C, during midday, and shifting the heat stress level from "extreme heat stress" to "strong heat stress". Facade greening reduced PET by about 1.5 °C, while roof greening had a limited effect, reducing PET by 1.0 °C. Furthermore, under coverage exceeding 75%, total greening achieved maximum reductions of 3.0 °C in mean radiant temperature and 1.2 °C in air temperature. (4) Conclusions: This study provides scientific evidence supporting total greening as the most effective strategy for mitigating heat stress and improving thermal comfort in high-density urban villages, offering practical insights for optimizing green infrastructure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As an effective energy-saving measure, green roofs significantly improve the thermal environment of buildings by covering the roof with vegetation and soil. This paper compares the thermal transfer performance of concrete roofs and green roofs under different temperature conditions. First, a uniaxial compression discrete element method (DEM) was used to calibrate the mesoscopic parameters of concrete, ensuring an accurate representation of concrete properties. The results indicate that green roofs have significant insulation effects under high-temperature conditions in summer. After being exposed to high temperatures for 5 h, the temperature of the green roof was 23.4 degrees Celsius lower than that of the ordinary concrete roof. In addition, different initial temperatures of the model also have a certain impact on heat transfer. The higher the initial temperature, the slower the temperature increase under high-temperature conditions. In winter, the green roof significantly delays the cooling at the top of the building, demonstrating excellent thermal insulation performance. The maximum temperature difference compared with the concrete roof is 8 °C. Finally, there is an exponential relationship between the thermal resistivity of the green roof and the temperature. In conclusion, green roofs have significant energy-saving and environmental protection value. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The advent and application of biophilic architecture bring numerous environmental, economic, and energy-efficiency benefits, playing a crucial role in advancing low-carbon, energy-saving, healthy, comfortable, and sustainable development within the construction industry. Thanks to its many advantages—such as aesthetic enhancement, improved microclimates, and negative carbon potential—biophilic architecture has been widely adopted in building design, particularly as a response to the escalating environmental crisis. Integrating plants with various architectural forms can optimize building performance, especially by reducing operational energy consumption. This study uses knowledge mapping tools like CiteSpace 6.1.R3 and VOSviewer 1.6.19 to analyze 2309 research papers from the Web of Science (WoS) published over the past decade on the topic of "energy efficiency in biophilic architecture". It conducts visual analyses of publication trends, collaborative networks, and key themes. The research categorizes plant–architecture integration methods, focusing on three primary areas: green roofs, vertical green systems, and green photovoltaic systems. Additionally, it reviews the ways in which biophilic architecture contributes to energy savings, the research methodologies employed, energy-saving rates, and the factors influencing these outcomes. Finally, a SWOT framework is constructed to assess the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and potential threats of biophilic architecture, as well as its future development prospects. The findings indicate that integrating plants with building roofs is an effective energy-saving strategy, achieving energy savings of up to 70%. Furthermore, combining biophilic elements with photovoltaic systems can enhance the efficiency of solar energy generation. This study offers valuable insights for architects and researchers in designing more energy-efficient and sustainable buildings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Green roofs represent a hallmark of sustainable design and provide opportunities for increased recognition and credits within sustainability assessment frameworks. This study examines the thermal performance of green roofs in Auckland, Christchurch, and Wellington, considering two scenarios: present conditions as a "baseline scenario" and future climate change projections for "scenario 2050." Firstly, we simulated green roofs to measure the Total Fuel Consumption (TFC) of a single residential building for heating and cooling purposes with a green roof compared to the same building with a traditional bare roof using Design Builder software. Then, we utilized the Climate Change World Weather File Generator tool to predict future climate change trends in 2050. The findings reveal substantial energy-saving potential in oceanic climates. In the baseline scenario, the green roof could reduce TFC by about 3% (Auckland), 2% (Christchurch), and 1% (Wellington). In scenario 2050, these reductions increase to 3.3%, 2.6%, and 1%, respectively. Notably, green roofs exhibit an impact during summertime, with TFC reductions of approximately 8.5% (2022) and 9% (2050) in Auckland, 4.5% (2022) and 5.6% (2050) in Christchurch, and 1.5% (2022) and 0.2% (2050) in Wellington. Thus, the findings of this research not only contribute to a deeper understanding of promising techniques to combat climate change but also provide valuable insights that can inform decision-making processes regarding sustainable urban development towards Sustainable Development Goal 13. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Given the increasing commitment of numerous nations to achieving future carbon neutrality, urban development planning that integrating carbon storage considerations plays a crucial role in enhancing urban carbon efficiency and promoting regional sustainable development. Previous studies have indicated that optimizing land use structure and quality is essential for regional carbon storage management. Taking the core area of Taihu Bay as study area, this study innovatively combined high-precision urban 3D data to account for the whole urban carbon pools of buildings, vegetation, soils, water. Then, multi-objective linear programming model and PLUS (Patch-generating Land Use Simulation) model were applied at patch scale to assess and compare carbon storage in various scenarios, considering both carbon storage maximization and urban development requirements. Results: The results were presented as follows. (1) Urban woodland carbon pool accounts for only a fraction of total carbon pool, and the role of soil and building carbon pools cannot be ignored. (2) Compared with the current situation, the carbon-growth optimized scenario will lead to the increase of total carbon storage by 38,568.31 tons. (3) Carbon-growth optimized scenario has reduced carbon storage in Woodland, Cropland, Village, Water compared to the Natural growth scenario, but has increased carbon storage in Garden plots, Street, Urban district, Town and other areas. Conclusions: Therefore, we find that for fast-growing cities, rationally planning built-up areas and woodland areas can achieve the twin goals of economic development and maximizing regional carbon storage. Furthermore, the implementation of new energy policies and projects such as green roofs can help to achieve regional carbon neutrality. The study provides new insights into the accounting of carbon pools within cities and the simulation of fine-grained land use planning based on the dual objectives of carbon stock maximization and urban development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the impact of green roof (GR) implementations as a mitigation strategy for urban heating during an extreme heat wave event in Athens, Greece, from 28 July to 5 August 2021. Three GR scenarios were simulated, namely 100% grass coverage, 100% sedum coverage, and 50% grass coverage, using the Weather Research and Forecasting model (WRF) in conjunction with the multi-layer urban-canopy-model BEP&BEM (Building Effect Parameterization/Building Energy Model) and extra urban land-use categories from Local Climate Zones (LCZ). Based on the results, GRs alter the local heat balance in the Greater Area of Athens (GAA), leading to a total temperature reduction. The 100% grass coverage proved to be the most effective, particularly during daytime, reducing the 2 m temperature field by approximately 0.7 °C (mean value) in the GAA. In some locations, temperature reductions exceeded 2 °C, depending on the local characteristics and the direction of the prevailing winds. Grass offered superior cooling effects compared to sedum, although sedum is more resilient to dry and moderate climates. The extent of vegetation coverage played an important role in the effectiveness of GRs. Reducing the coverage by 50% significantly reduced the cooling benefits, highlighting the importance of maximizing vegetation coverage to achieve notable temperature reductions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biochar from biomass and waste is a valuable component of various urban green infrastructures, including green roofs, permeable pavements, green walls, and green parking lots. Incorporating biochar into substrate mixtures offers numerous benefits, including improved water retention, nutrient availability, plant growth, and carbon sequestration. Moreover, biochar plays a crucial role in stormwater management by effectively retaining and filtering stormwater, reducing runoff, mitigating urban flooding, and improving surface water quality. This study conducted a comprehensive bibliometric analysis and synthesis of the literature to provide a broad perspective of the current understanding of biochar use in green infrastructure projects, focusing on the impact of biochar on soil and environmental quality, water retention, pollutant removal and the overall performance and sustainability of green infrastructure systems. This review also provides a comprehensive synthesis of the potential of biochar in enhancing green infrastructure systems and guiding future research and implementation strategies. The insights provided in this review can guide corporate stakeholders in understanding the benefits, challenges, and applications of biochar in urban green infrastructure management, empowering them to make informed decisions and contribute to the development of sustainable and resilient urban environments aligned with the principles of the UN SDGs and ESG considerations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Jeddah is the most important port city in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The climate of Jeddah is mostly dry; however, events of intensive rainfall followed by urban flooding have been reported in recent history. These floods interrupt the logistics and lifelines of the city. In this study runoff analysis and Flash Flood management by the green roof low impact development (LID) control system, was performed using United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)'s Stormwater Management Model (SWMM). Six middle districts of Jeddah city had been selected and modeled in five sub-catchment areas. The local soil and geographic conditions were incorporated into the model. The effect of the soil-based, rooftop, LID system has been emphasized in the analysis. In flood simulations, 30–70% of the impervious area of each sub-catchment has been treated with LID. It has been observed that the LID application can significantly reduce the overall flood flow. Thus, simple but well-planned LID control systems can be effectively utilized for the flood management of heavily urbanized regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With rapid urbanization, the urban heat island (UHI) effect has intensified, posing challenges to human health and ecosystems. This study explores the impact of sunlight exposure areas of artificial structures and human activities on land surface temperature (LST) in Hefei and Xuzhou, using Landsat 9 data, Google imagery, nighttime light data, and Point of Interest (POI) data. Building shadow distributions and urban road surface areas were derived, and geospatial analysis methods were applied to assess their impact on LST. The results indicate that the sunlight exposure areas of roofs and roads are the primary factors affecting LST, with a more pronounced effect in Xuzhou, while anthropogenic heat plays a more prominent role in Hefei. The influence of sunlight exposure on building facades is relatively weak, and population density shows a limited impact on LST. The geographical detector model reveals that interactions between roof and road sunlight exposure and anthropogenic heat are key drivers of LST increases. Based on these findings, urban planning should focus on optimizing building layouts and heights, enhancing greening on roofs and roads, and reducing the sunlight exposure areas of artificial structures. Additionally, strategically utilizing building shadows and minimizing anthropogenic heat emissions can help lower local temperatures and improve the urban thermal environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The rapid urbanization witnessed in recent years has led to the deterioration of urban ecosystems, resulting in various environmental and socioeconomic challenges. In response to these concerns, the implementation of Green and Blue Infrastructures (GBI) has gained prominence as a sustainable urban planning approach. GBI is a planned network system of natural and semi-natural spaces, along with other environmental elements, managed and designed to provide a wide range of ecosystem services and improve ecological conditions, thereby contributing to citizens' wellbeing and quality of life. This study presents a comprehensive assessment of the costs, benefits (ecosystem services), and impacts (ecosystem dis-services) associated with the incorporation of GBI in urban environments using the technique of emergy accounting. To achieve this, the research paper introduces a novel integrated valuation framework. This framework encompasses key components such as constructing/maintenance costs, ecosystem services, needed costs to human health and biodiversity damage, as well as ecosystem dis-services. Furthermore, the study conducts a comparative analysis of the costs, benefits, and impacts associated with different urban GBIs via ternary phase diagram, shedding light on their varying contributions to the urban ecosystem. The findings reveal that green roofs offer more ecosystem benefits as compared to other GBIs, but this study also highlights that green roof entail higher initial construction costs and produce a greater number of dis-services. Conversely, street trees have lower initial costs and impacts yet generate higher benefits. Furthermore, green walls, despite having a lower input emergy value and fewer benefits, result in higher impacts compared to other green-blue ecosystems. These findings provide valuable insights for urban planners, policymakers, and stakeholders, enabling them to make informed decisions in developing sustainable cities for the wellbeing of present and future generations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sustainability and energy efficiency are now two pivotal goals that society aims towards. Green roofs and facades have gained significant attention in this direction for innovative, sustainable solutions for enhancing building energy performance. With a focus on sustainable urban development and energy-efficient building practices, this study delves into the intricate relationship between these green infrastructure elements and the overall energy dynamics of constructed environments. Furthermore, a range of case studies from diverse geographical locations are presented to provide valuable insights into their practical implications as emerging technologies that contribute to improved insulation, reduced heat transfer, regulating indoor temperatures, and mitigation of urban heat island effects, thus reducing the need for artificial heating and cooling and optimizing overall energy consumption. This comprehensive review serves as a dataset for understanding and highlighting all the research findings of the numerical and experimental investigations invested in the field of greenery systems to encourage their integration, which is crucial for combating climate change and pollution. Previous research is often focused on isolated, short-term, or single-climate analyses of consumption; therefore, by providing an inclusive description of their practical benefits in both temperate and extreme climates, the gap in previous articles is tackled. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Green roofs are a fundamental technology in the transformation of urban centers into more sustainable environments, with a positive impact on buildings, cities, and their inhabitants. Yet, green roof technology may require the use of materials with a high environmental impact, namely, when associated with large transport distances. The present work arises from the need to find an environmental solution to use in an eco-school on one of the Azores islands. It tests green roofs on a wooden structure using local and sustainable materials. Prototypes were built to monitor their performance and to complement the theoretical information investigated regarding the construction systems of green roofs with alternative materials. The installation of the prototypes was accompanied by the school community, and the performance was monitored. The pumice stone proved to be an efficient solution for the drainage layer of the green roof. The use of local soil (volcanic origin) instead of a commercial substrate proved to work properly, both for drainage and for vegetation growth. Finally, the results also contribute to a better understanding of green roofs on wooden structures and encourage the use of local materials in future projects, with a view towards a circular economy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Smart urban planning needs to have a multicriteria-based approach to prevent the deteriorating local thermal climate. Maximizing the cooling potential using the available grey infrastructure would be the utmost priority of future smart cities. Remote sensing and GIS can be the appropriate tools to develop a climate-resilient urban planning framework. Studies are needed to include different features of vertical and horizontal landscaping to mitigate heat stress and enhance liveability at the city level. With this goal, the current work outlined a holistic approach to efficiently using green spaces with minimal reconstruction. The problem of regional climate threat was evaluated with urban heat island characterization. Moran's I clustering identified nearly 12% of the study area to be under considerable heat stress during summer days. Multiple techniques, such as mapping local climate zones, segment mean shift-based roof extraction, vegetation index computation, solar azimuth-based green wall site selection, etc., were applied to formulate solutions and provide an integrated method for city-level environment enhancement. A considerable area was identified as most suitable for green roof cover, and it was also computed that the transition towards green roof at only these locations may bring down the maximum heat island intensity by 0.74 °C. Additionally, solar zenith, illumination effect, and building height information were combined to create a distinct method where vertical plantation would flourish exceptionally. A rigorous assessment of more than 130 urban green spaces further quantified the relation between landscape geometry and cooling effect to provide optimum green space designs for future urban planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Balkan & Near Eastern Journal of Social Sciences (BNEJSS) is the property of Balkan & Near Eastern Journal of Social Sciences (BNEJSS) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

With rapid worldwide urbanization, the urban heat island (UHI) effect is becoming more and more serious. The UHI effect is more intense in industrial areas. Green roofs are an effective way to mitigate UHIs in high-density cities, which calls for thorough examination. This study explored the associations between the block characteristics and block thermal environment in high-density industrial areas based on the widely accepted Local Climate Zone (LCZ) scheme. The pedestrian air temperature comparisons before and after virtual green roof installations presented the cooling effects of green roofs. Thirty-six typical industrial blocks were involved in the study and the simulations were conducted utilizing ENVI-met. The results showed that (1) the air temperature in LCZ4 is significantly lower than those in LCZ2 and LCZ6, but no significant differences were identified between other pairs of LCZ types; (2) the cooling effect of green roofs significantly differs among LCZs, and is associated with sky view factor (SVF), average building area (ABA) and average building shape index (ABSI); (3) in high-density urban areas, additional functional parameters and building-volume indices should be included to better address the physical characteristics, thermal environment, and green roof cooling effect of industrial blocks. This study could improve the validity of LCZ classification for high-density industrial blocks and may provide direct implications for green roof planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Severe weather conditions and urban intensification are key factors affecting the response of combined sewer systems, especially during storm events. In this regard, the capacity assessment of combined sewer networks under the impact of rainfall storm events of different return periods was the focus of this work. The selected case study area was a mixed-use catchment in the city centre of Thessaloniki, Greece. The hydraulic performance of the examined sewer network was assessed using an InfoWorks ICM model. The results indicated that mitigation strategies, such as the application of nature-based solutions (NBSs) or low-impact developments (LIDs) are considered essential for controlling combined sewer overflows. A multicriteria analysis was conducted to select the most appropriate NBSs/LIDs to be located in the study area to enhance the system's capacity. The results of this multicriteria analysis were used to propose a combined sewer overflow mitigation scenario, based on the installation of green roofs, as the most highly ranked solution in the analysis performed. Incorporating the proposed NBS/LID in the hydrologic-hydraulic model significantly increased the performance of the studied combined sewer network. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of green roofs, a low-impact development practice, can be an effective means of reducing direct runoff in urban centers. Green roof modeling can enable efficient design by preliminarily grasping the behavior of the green roof system according to specific configurations. In this study, we aimed to find appropriate evapotranspiration and parameter optimization schemes for HYDRUS-1D, a commonly used modeling tool for green roofs. Comparative studies of this sort in the context of green roof runoff modeling have not been conducted previously and are important in guiding users to overcome the difficulties of choosing the right numerical schemes for an accurate prediction of runoff from a green roof. As a study site, the Portland Building Ecoroof in Portland, Oregon, USA, was chosen, as green roof configurations and observed data for climate and runoff were available. From the simulation results of the runoff volume, the Blaney–Criddle method, which was considered an alternative, was found to be appropriate for calculating evapotranspiration from a green roof (R2 = 0.82) relative to the Hargreaves method built in HYDRUS-1D (R2 = 0.46). In addition, this study showed that the optimization method using the harmony search algorithm, which was proposed as an alternative optimizer, was better (R2 = 0.95) than that of the HYDRUS-1D's own optimization module (R2 = 0.82) in calibrating HYDRUS-1D for green roof runoff. The findings are thought to be useful in guiding modelers who are considering using HYDRUS-1D for green roof runoff simulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The adoption of green roofs is an effective practice for mitigating environmental issues in urban areas caused by extreme weather conditions. However, certain design aspects of green roofs, such as the characterization of the physical properties of their substrates, need a better understanding. This study proposes a simple method for estimating two hydraulic properties of green roof substrates based on the evolution of moisture during drying periods, or drydowns, where evaporative processes dominate: the weighted-mean diffusivity and the saturated hydraulic conductivity. Soil moisture was monitored using 12 in situ sensors from 2015 to 2020 in a study involving six different green roof plots composed of various mixtures of demolition-recycled aggregates and organic substrates. A universal parameterization for determining water diffusivity in soils was applied to estimate the weighted-mean hydraulic diffusivity. As a by-product, the saturated hydraulic conductivity was estimated from the evaluated diffusivity and the measured water retention data. The median values obtained for D ¯ and k s range from 14.5 to 29.9 cm2d−1 and from 22 to 361 cmd−1, respectively. These values fall within the ranges reported by other research groups using direct measurement methods and supports the validity of Brutsaert's model for green roof substrates. Furthermore, an increase in D ¯ and a decrease in k s were observed as the percentage of recycled aggregates in the substrates increased, which could be considered for design purposes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of waste and locally available materials could improve the sustainability of green roofs. Therefore, a study was conducted to evaluate the potential of a rice hulls in the organic and inorganic portion of green roof substrates. Three substrate mixtures were prepared at the site by mixing locally available materials. The substrate mixtures were designated as RPZV (rice hulls 6:1; pumice and zeolite mixture 2:1; vermicompost 2:1 by volume), PZR (rice hulls 2:1; pumice and zeolite 8:1), and PZV (pumice and zeolite 8:1; vermicompost 2:1). Measurements were performed including plant growth index, chlorophyll fluorescence, biomass accumulation on native and exotic plant species. Increased amounts of rice hulls in the substrate mixture had a significant effect on reducing bulk density up to 24%, increasing organic matter content up to 67% and maximum water holding capacity (WHC) of the substrate, but also had the lowest volumetric moisture values in the field measurements due to increased porosity and permeability of the substrate. Adversely, substrate mixtures with higher rice hull content experienced greater temperature fluctuations during the study period, which have resulted in increased plant mortality and stress for certain plant species during the study. As the organic part of the substrate, rice hulls caused a decrease on the salinity of the substrate by about 28% and provided higher survival rates and lower stress levels for A.schoenoprasum, C.creticus, L.spectabilis, D.chinensis and Sedum species. The results of the study suggested that, rice hulls may have the potential to be used in appropriate proportions due to their low bulk density, low salinity and resistance to degradation, leading to a reduction in the environmental impact of green roof construction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Green structures, such as green roofs or green façades, are great examples of climate change mitigation. Their impact is mainly focused on roofs in the area of overheating reduction. In this paper, initial measurement results of a green façade experimental test setup are provided. The green façade uses an innovative board from recycled materials with vegetation rooted directly on the board. The tested green façade is divided into three segments. These segments differ from each other in their watering regimes, which are crucial for cooling effectiveness. Watering operates with the assistance of gravity; water flows from the top gutter through the boards. In this paper, these three segments are compared to each other with respect to temperatures on the surface of a regular external thermal insulation composite system façade (ETICS) during two summer days. The green façade showed an impact on the temperature in the ventilated air gap, where the temperature is almost the same as the outdoor air temperature in the morning with direct solar radiation on the façade and lower than the outdoor air temperature in the afternoon. At the peaks, the surface temperatures within the air cavity surface are up to 8 °C lower than those on a new white ETICS coating. This demonstrates a cooling potential, although the surface temperatures are always higher than the outdoor air temperatures during daylight hours. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The depletion of global resources has intensified efforts to address energy scarcity. One promising area is the use of solar photovoltaic (PV) roofs for energy savings. This study conducts a comprehensive bibliometric analysis of 333 articles published between 1993 and 2023 in the Web of Science (WOS) core database to provide a global overview of research on solar photovoltaic (PV) roofs, with a particular emphasis on their energy-saving benefits. The analysis identifies current trends and future development trajectories in this field. Over the past three decades, research on solar PV roofs has shown steady growth, progressing from initial exploration to stable development. Key research themes include integrating renewable energy with building efficiency, the synergistic benefits of green roofs and PV systems, the design and practical application of PV-integrated roofs, and optimization techniques for parametric models. Future research will likely prioritize the efficient integration of PV components with roof maintenance structures, shifting from solely assessing PV component performance to evaluating the holistic performance of roofs and their broader impact on the built environment. This shift underscores the importance of improving the overall sustainability of the building. By aligning research efforts with these emerging trends, stakeholders can contribute to developing more effective and sustainable energy solutions for the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spontaneous vegetation within a managed green space is often regarded as unwelcoming and insignificant weeds. This perception is still deep-rooted among green-space managers and the general public worldwide; they are generally uncertain about the management needs after allowing these groups of flora to take root. The short-term growth dynamics of both spontaneous and planted vegetation should be analyzed, and a widely acceptable, feasible management plan to balance aesthetic and ecological functions should be formulated with the backing of data and analysis for such fast-growing flora in tropical and subtropical regions. A manicured, extensive green roof with only seven (two native, five exotic) plant species was transformed into a renaturalized biotope by replacing 15 native ferns and forb species over 15 months. After planting, a baseline plant survey was conducted, with 54 plant species representing spontaneous growth and 14 planted species alive (7 planted native species survived, plus 7 species planted prior to renaturalization revived). Three quarterly plant surveys recorded the cover-abundance of each species, and the growth dynamics of the planted and spontaneous plant species were evaluated over the first year of study. During each quarterly survey, the number of planted and spontaneous plant species remained stable (ranging from 14 to 16 species and 51 to 54 species, respectively), with a constant turnover of 11 to 12 die-out species and 11 to 12 newly colonized or revived species. Plant coverage of different plant forms fluctuated slightly (within 7%) in the quarterly surveys according to seasonal changes, except for ferns, which outperformed (12% increase in coverage in a year) all the other plant forms. The height of the planted vegetation fluctuated in a year, being shorter during the summer, while the height of spontaneous vegetation remained stable throughout the year, exhibiting resilience to scouring heat. The seasonal growth tendencies of both planted and spontaneous plants were illustrated in relation to their species ranks, and further hierarchical cluster analysis was conducted for the clustering of spontaneous species. Their differential growth patterns provided comprehensive information or supported decisions regarding plant selection and maintenance, which is a scientific novelty within this unexplored topic. Management recommendations based on the findings were suggested to fulfill both aesthetic and ecological needs. Species with stable and less stable growth patterns could be useful to meet maintenance efficiency and biodiversity enhancement needs, respectively. These findings provide insights to form guiding principles for choosing plant species for renaturalization projects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Floods are increasingly becoming a significant concern due to climate change, global warming, and excessive urbanization. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has projected that global warming will continue to contribute to more frequent and severe floods and hydrological extremes. In response to these challenges, nature-based solutions (NBSs) have gained recognition as effective approaches to mitigate the adverse impacts of floods by focusing on ecosystem conservation, restoration, and sustainable utilization of natural resources. This study examines a flood that occurred in the Erkilet District of Kayseri, Türkiye on September 22, 2022, as a result of intense rainfall. It involves a thorough on-site investigation to assess the hydraulic, hydrologic, and geotechnical attributes of the study area. The findings from the field study indicate that the primary cause of the flood is attributed to excessive urbanization. To further analyze the impact of urbanization, a hydraulic model is developed considering both the physical and topographical conditions of the study area for both the year 2006 and 2022. The simulation results reveal that the extent of inundation area and water depth has increased significantly due to the excessive urbanization that occurred within a 16-year period. Additionally, the effectiveness of green roofs and permeable pavements as NBSs to mitigate urban flooding is explored. The implementation of green roofs and permeable pavements shows promising results, reducing the adverse effects of urban floods by 3% to 8%, depending on their specific locations and configurations. However, the results suggest that NBSs alone cannot fully prevent floods so they should complement gray infrastructure. The novelty of the study lies in its ability to demonstrate the impact of urbanization and the effectiveness of nature-based solutions in mitigating flood extent based. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change can significantly affect building energy use and associated greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in urban areas, as fossil fuels remain a significant energy source. Green roofs can offer multiple benefits to the urban environment, but their effects on GHG mitigation have not been fully investigated, especially under climate change. This study assessed green roofs' contribution to GHG mitigation by saving building energy and absorbing CO2 under the present (2017–2019) and future (2049–2051) climate scenarios (SSP2-45 and SSP5-85) in Shanghai, China, at the city and township scale. A Geographic Information System (GIS)-based spatial statistical method was developed based on climate change modeling and building energy simulation. The results suggested that installing green roofs can effectively save building energy regardless of building type, yet the amount of savings can vary depending on the weather conditions within the city. The contribution analysis indicated that most saved building energy was attributed to the Heating, Ventilation, and Cooling (HVAC) system, with more energy saved under warmer climate scenarios in the future, particularly during the summer months. More energy was saved from shopping malls on an annual and monthly scale, regardless of the climate scenarios and weather zones. Finally, a case study indicated installing green roofs on all five types of buildings (office, hotel, hospital, shopping mall, apartment) of less than 50 m in height can reduce 8.28% of the CO2 emitted during the building operation stage in the entire city under the present climate scenario. The annual CO2 reduction varied with the location of townships, ranging from 2.18% to 13.78%, depending on the composition of building types and local weather conditions in Shanghai. This study offered policymakers a reference on the environmental benefits and investment values of installing green roofs in large cities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Green roofs and walls play an important role in promoting biodiversity, reducing the urban heat island effect and providing ecosystem services in urban areas. However, the conditions on green walls/roofs (low nutrient and organic matter content, drought, high temperatures) are often unfavorable for plant growth. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) can improve the growth and development of plants under stress conditions as they can increase nutrient and water uptake. In a 6-month pot experiment, we investigated the effect of AMF inoculation on the growth and NPK uptake of Festuca ovina L. and Trifolium medium L., which are used for green roofs and walls. Two variants of mycorrhizal inoculation were used in the experiment: a commercial mycorrhizal inoculant AM Symbivit (Symbiom Ltd., Lanskroun, Czech Republic) and a mycorrhizal inoculant collected from calcareous grassland in the Silesia region (Poland). Funneliformis mosseae was the most abundant species in the roots of F. ovina and T. medium with IM inoculum. In the CM variant, a dominance of F. mosseae was observed in the roots of F. ovina. In contrast, Archaeosporaceae sp. node 317 dominated in the roots of T. medium. Both inoculations had a positive effect on the increase in dry weight of the shoots of T. medium, but only the commercial inoculum had a positive effect on the growth of F. ovina. Both inoculations improved the P uptake by the roots and the P and K uptake into the shoots of T. medium. In addition, both inoculations improved the K uptake by the roots of F. ovina and the N, P and K uptake into the shoots. In conclusion, both AMF communities included in the inoculations had a positive effect on plant growth and nutrient uptake, but the effect depends on the plant and the mycorrhizal fungus species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The global increase in temperature and the resulting climate change present a significant challenge for animal husbandry. Cattle are particularly affected by heat stress during the summer months. The objective of the study was to quantify the duration of heat stress hours during the summer months on ten farms with new or renovated cattle barns. Furthermore, the heat radiation of different ridge designs was evaluated in comparison to the respective roof construction. All farms experienced heat stress during the summer months, with those two farms utilising digital barn climate regulation exhibiting notable benefits. This suggests that digital barn climate regulation can play a pivotal role in mitigating heat stress in animals. Additionally, the findings validated the efficacy of green roofs in actively cooling through evaporative cooling. The heat input was considerably higher with uninsulated trapezoidal sheet metal roofs and light ridges than with sandwich roofs and membrane ridges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of sponge cities advocates for sustainable urban rainwater management, effectively alleviating urban flood disasters, reducing non-point-source pollution, and promoting the recycling of rainwater resources. Low-Impact Development (LID) serves as a key strategy in this context, providing essential support for urban rainwater control and pollution reduction. To investigate the runoff control effects of LID measures and to reveal the relationship between facility runoff control performance and installation scale, this study focuses on a sponge community in Beijing. A SWMM model was constructed to analyze the rainwater flood control and pollutant load reduction effects of different LID facilities, including bio-retention cells, green roofs, and permeable pavements. Using evaluation indicators such as surface runoff, node overflow, and pollutant control rates, this study examined how facility performance varies with installation scale under different rainfall conditions. The combination scheme of LID equipment optimal configuration is designed by using multiple criteria decision analysis (MCDA) and cost–benefit theory. The results indicate significant differences in performance among the various LID facilities across different rainfall scenarios. Specifically, the optimal installation proportion for runoff and overflow control of permeable pavements were found to be between 30% and 70%. Green roofs demonstrate superior performance in handling extreme rainfall events, while bio-retention cells exhibit significant effectiveness in controlling Total Suspended Solids (TSSs). Through comprehensive performance evaluation, this study identified the optimal combination scale under a 3-year rainfall recurrence interval as 30% permeable pavements, 20% green roof, and 60% bio-retention cells. This combination effectively leverages the strengths of each facility, ensuring system stability and efficiency while also demonstrating optimal management efficiency in cost–benefit analyses. The findings of this research provide valuable insights for future urban water management and infrastructure development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Energy-efficient materials are essential in buildings to reduce energy consumption, lower greenhouse gas emissions, and enhance indoor comfort. These materials help address the increasing energy demand and environmental impact of traditional construction methods. This paper presents a comprehensive literature review that explores advanced materials and technologies for improving building energy efficiency, sustainability, and occupant comfort. The study applies a comparative analysis of peer-reviewed research to examine key technologies analyzed include building-integrated photovoltaics, advanced insulating materials, reflective and thermal coatings, glazing systems, phase-change materials, and green roofs and walls. The study highlights the significant energy savings, thermal performance, and environmental benefits of these materials. By integrating these technologies, buildings can achieve enhanced energy efficiency, reduced carbon footprints, and improved indoor comfort. The findings underscore the potential of advanced building materials in fostering sustainable construction practices. The methodology of this review involves collecting, analyzing, summarizing, comparing and synthesizing existing research to draw conclusions on the performance and efficiency of these technologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Green roofs (GRs) have been widely adopted as an effective Green Infrastructure (GI) practice in cities worldwide, offering ecosystem services such as stormwater management and reduction of the urban heat island effect. However, their widespread implementation is still limited by a lack of local research and uncertain research findings. As a result, the potential benefits of GRs often cannot justify their high investment costs. Previous studies have sought to enhance the effectiveness of GRs by evaluating new GR systems, such as integrating GRs with green walls, blue roofs, photovoltaic (PV) panels, radiant cooling systems, as well as the use of innovative materials in GR substrates. Biochar, a carbon-rich substrate additive, has been recently investigated. The addition of biochar improves water/nutrient retention of GRs, thereby increasing substrate fertility and promoting plant performance. Although studies have examined the effects of biochar on GR plant growth, long-term observational studies focusing on the impacts of various biochar-related parameters remain necessary. Therefore, this research aims to assess the performance of GR plants with different biochar parameters, namely, amendment rates, application methods, and particle sizes. A one-year-long observational data of plant height, coverage area, and dry weight from six GR test beds was collected and analyzed. Results demonstrate the positive impacts of biochar on plant growth in different biochar-GR setups and types of plant species (wallaby grass, common everlasting, and billy buttons). The GR with medium biochar particles at the amendment rate of 15% v/v had the best plant performance. This contributes to increasing the feasibility of GRs by maximizing GR benefits to buildings where they are installed while reducing GR costs of irrigation and maintenance. The conclusions were further supported by observed data indicating reduced substrate temperature, which in turn reduces building energy consumption. Since vegetation is crucial in determining the effectiveness of a GR system, this study will offer valuable insights to GR designers and urban planners for developing optimal biochar-amended GR systems. Such systems provide numerous benefits over traditional GRs, including enhanced plant growth, reduced building energy costs, a shorter payback period, and reduced structural requirements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The roof is the part of a building that is exposed to solar radiation for the longest period, making green roofs particularly effective in reducing air conditioning energy consumption during the summer. This study aims to assess the advantages of modular green roofs in terms of energy savings and cost reduction during the summer in Xuzhou. By conducting field measurements and surveys under both air-conditioned and non-air-conditioned conditions and utilizing building energy simulation tools, the performance of green roofs with different parameters was compared. Using EnergyPlus, factors such as soil thickness, thermal conductivity, and leaf area index were simulated. The results indicated that green roofs have superior thermal performance in summer, with the daily cooling load per unit area for top-floor rooms being 1.05 kWh/m2, 0.21 kWh/m2 lower than that for bare roofs, achieving an energy saving rate of 16.7%. It is recommended that soil thickness not exceed 0.3 m and insulation thickness not exceed 0.05 m or be set to 0 m. Take building no. 2 of the Xuzhou material market as an example: with the optimized green roof, the energy saving rate increased to 27.0%, which is 12.4% higher than that of the original green roof. The suggested cost for modular green roofs is 204 RMB/m2. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]