Search

Research Infrastructures (RIs) are facilities, resources and services used by the scientific community to conduct research and foster innovation. LifeWatch ERIC has developed various virtual research environments, which include many virtual laboratories (vLabs) offering high computational capacity and comprehensive collaborative platforms that supporting the needs of digital biodiversity science. Over its 250 years of history, the taxonomic research community has developed a system for describing, classifying and naming taxa across multiple levels. For the marine biota, taxonomic information is organized and made publicly available through the World Register of Marine Species (WoRMS) that records more than 250,000 described valid species. Although scientists tend to assign an equal status (in terms of contribution to overall diversity) to each taxon used in taxonomy, biogeography, ecology and biodiversity, the question “are all taxa equal?” has never been tested at a global scale. We present evidence that this question can be addressed by applying relatedness indices (Taxonomic Distinctness) over the entire WoRMS metazoan tree. The RvLab, developed by the LifeWatchGreece RI, operating on a high-performance computer cluster, has been used to meet the high computational demands required for such an analysis at a global scale.

Song, Xikun, Xiao, Zefeng, Gravili, Cinzia, Ruthensteiner, Bernhard, Mackenzie, Melanie, Wang, Shaoqing, Chen, Jinjing, Yu, Nan, Wang, Jianjun (2016): Worldwide revision of the genus Fraseroscyphus Boero and Bouillon, 1993 (Cnidaria: Hydrozoa): an integrative approach to establish new generic diagnoses. Zootaxa 4168 (1): 1-37, DOI: http://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4168.1.1

Genus Fraseroscyphus Boero & Bouillon, 1993 Emended diagnosis. Colony with upright hydrocaulus, monosiphonic, erect, slightly zigzag, unbranched or branched, hydrocladia usually originate from within the hydrothecal cavity, sometimes directly growing on hydrocaulus beneath a hydrotheca, without axillary hydrotheca, without stem apophysis. With regular and oblique nodes, each internode bearing a hydrotheca. Hydrothecae alternately arranged in two rows almost in one plane, or forming an angle less than 90��, sometimes spirally arranged in three longitudinal rows; hydrotheca tubular, partly adnate, with three marginal cusps, one adcauline and two lateral abcauline, and three operculum flaps forming a pyramid; retracted hydranth with poorly developed abcauline caecum. Clinging organ present, resembling bubbly lobes. Gonotheca generally originate from within the hydrothecal cavity or growing directly from hydrocaulus, pedicellate, with a short distal neck, sexually dimorphic. Nematocyst capsule spindle-shaped, microbasic mastigophores. Type species. Sertularella sinuosa Fraser, 1948, by original designation by Boero & Bouillon (1993), a junior subjective synonym of Fraseroscyphus hozawai., Published as part of Song, Xikun, Xiao, Zefeng, Gravili, Cinzia, Ruthensteiner, Bernhard, Mackenzie, Melanie, Wang, Shaoqing, Chen, Jinjing, Yu, Nan & Wang, Jianjun, 2016, Worldwide revision of the genus Fraseroscyphus Boero and Bouillon, 1993 (Cnidaria: Hydrozoa): an integrative approach to establish new generic diagnoses, pp. 1-37 in Zootaxa 4168 (1) on pages 14-15, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4168.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/267871, {"references":["Boero, F. & Bouillon, J. (1993) Fraseroscyphus sinuosus n. gen. (Cnidaria, Hydrozoa, Leptomedusae, Sertulariidae), an epiphytic hydroid with a specialized clinging organ. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 71, 1061 - 1064. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1139 / z 93 - 141","Fraser, C. M. (1948) Hydroids of the Allan Hancock Pacific Expeditions since March, 1938. Allan Hancock Pacific Expeditions, 4, 179 - 343."]}

Fraseroscyphus irregularis (Trebilcock, 1928) comb. nov. (Figures 3 D���E, J, 5, 7) Sertularella irregularis Trebilcock, 1928: 11, pl.5, figs, 1���1b.��� Stranks, 1993: 17. Symplectoscyphus irregularis ��� Ralph, 1961a: 818, figs. 19 d���f.��� Dawson, 1992: 20.��� Vervoort & Watson 2003: 209, figs. 50E���G. Type locality. St. Clair, Dunedin, New Zealand. Type material. Seven syntypes, two ethanol samples fixed through formalin (NMV F57939, NMV F57940), two slide samples with colonies (NMV F57894, NMV F57941), and three nematocyst slides (NMV F57939.1��� F57939.3) newly prepared from NMV F57939, creeping on coralline algae, rock pools at low tide, St. Clair, Dunedin, New Zealand, 1923. V.3, R. E. Trebilcock. Details: ���NMV F57894 (Figure 3 D), two colonies and three fragments, six male gonothecae (three originating from within the hydrothecal cavity, two growing below hydrothecae, one detached).���NMV F57941 (Figure 3 E), slide sample, one colony, single stolon twisted in mass, diameter 2 mm, no gonothecae, two hydranths extending out of hydrothecae, nematocyst capsules clear.���NMV F57939, comprising remnant parent lot and three nematocyst slides (NMV F57939.1���F57939.3), 22 colonies and nine fragments, 38 female gonothecae (26 originating from within the hydrothecal cavity, seven growing below hydrothecae, five detached), four clinging organs, diameter 0.09���0.13 mm, with 2���5 lobes.���NMV F57940, a colony creeping on alga, more than five detached gonothecae, possibly female. Lectotype designation. ���Lectotype, a fragment on the slide NMV F57894 as shown by an arrow in Figure 3 D, the best preserved fertile fragment in type material, male.���Paralectotypes, the remaining fragments on the slide NMV F57894, male; NMV F57939 (female), comprising of three newly prepared nematocyst slides (NMV F57939.1���F57939.3), NMV F57940 (possibly female), NMV F57941. Measurements. Full details are given in Table 6. Description. Trophosome. Colony small (Figure 3 D), irregular hydrorhiza creeping on coralline alga, hydrocaulus monosiphonic, origin from stolons, erect, slightly zigzag, with two to six transverse annulations at base, irregularly branched, without apophysis (Figure 5 B), with or without branchlet, also with one to two transverse annulations at base, no axillary hydrotheca. Regular and oblique nodes on hydrocaulus and hydrocladium, each internode slightly constricted at the distal end and bearing a hydrotheca (Figure 5 A); hydrothecae arranged spirally in three longitudinal rows forming an angle of about 60�� between every two rows (Figure 5 A); hydrotheca tubular, no wrinkles or lines on the surface, a third of the adcauline part adnate, bending outwards; margin of hydrothecal aperture with three cusps, one adcauline and two lateral abcauline, abcauline cusps slightly larger, no intrathecal teeth; operculum composed of three triangular flaps forming a pyramid; retracted hydranth with poorly developed abcauline caecum (Figure 5 I). Clinging organ. Directly attached to hydrocaulus or stolon, composed of two to four repeated bubbly lobes opening distally with very thin perisarc (Figure 5 G), accompanied by annulations near node; mature lobes connecting to several processes which might develop into branchlets or stolons (Figure 5 H). Gonosome. Gonothecae large, three to four times the size of hydrotheca, generally origin from within the hydrothecal cavity (Figure 5 C���D), or growing at the base of hydrotheca (Figure 5 E���F), pedicellate, with a short distal neck which slightly expands at distal end; male gonotheca subsphaeroidal (Figure 5 C, F), female gonotheca long and orbicular (Figure 5 D���E). Nematocysts. Two types, varying in length and width, capsule spindle-shaped (Figures 3 J, 5J���K). Distribution. Only reported from New Zealand (Figure 7): St. Clair, Dunedin; Taylors Mistake, Christchurch, Woodpecker Bay (Trebilcock 1928; Ralph 1961a; Vervoort & Watson 2003). Remarks. In the original description of Fraseroscyphus irregularis, Trebilcock (1928) illustrated two different gonothecae (Plate 5, 1a and 1b) but did not mention their sex. After the re-examination of the type material with abundant gonothecae, the male and female can be easily identified due to the existence of large and dense sperm masses in mature male gonothecae. The sex of the original figure 1a was found to be female and 1b male, while the gonothecae in two other related illustrations (Ralph 1961a; Vervoort & Watson 2003) should be both female. Trebilcock (1928) noted that the abcauline caecum was rudimentally developed. This character is not clear in the type slides. However, it can still be easily and clearly observed in some hydrothecae in the ethanol sample NMV F57939, although most tissues are decomposed (Figure 5 I). Ralph (1961a) also observed the abcauline caecum, but Vervoort & Watson (2003) did not observe this character after they re-examined Ralph's samples. This might have been due to the poor quality of the samples, or the rudimentally developed morphology of the abcauline caecum leading to it being overlooked. Moreover, Trebilcock did not note the clinging organs in his original description, however, at least four clinging organs (Figure 5 G���H) are present in the type material NMV F57939., Published as part of Song, Xikun, Xiao, Zefeng, Gravili, Cinzia, Ruthensteiner, Bernhard, Mackenzie, Melanie, Wang, Shaoqing, Chen, Jinjing, Yu, Nan & Wang, Jianjun, 2016, Worldwide revision of the genus Fraseroscyphus Boero and Bouillon, 1993 (Cnidaria: Hydrozoa): an integrative approach to establish new generic diagnoses, pp. 1-37 in Zootaxa 4168 (1) on page 20, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4168.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/267871, {"references":["Trebilcock, R. E. (1928) Notes on New Zealand Hydroida. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria, 41, 1 - 31.","Stranks, T. N. (1993) Catalogue of recent Cnidaria type specimens in the Museum of Victoria. Occasional Papers from the Museum of Victoria, 6, 1 - 26.","Ralph, P. M. (1961 a) New Zealand thecate hydroids. Part III. - Family Sertulariidae. Transactions of the Royal Society of New Zealand, 88, 749 - 838.","Dawson, E. W. (1992) The Coelenterata of the New Zealand region: a handlist for curators, students and ecologists. Occasional papers of the Hutton Foundation, 1, 1 - 68.","Vervoort, W. & Watson, J. E. (2003) The marine fauna of New Zealand: Leptothecata (Cnidaria: Hydrozoa) (thecate hydroids). NIWA Biodiversity Memoir, 119, 1 - 538."]}

Key to species of Fraseroscyphus 1 Hydrothecae arranged spirally................................................................. F. irregularis - Hydrothecae not arranged spirally........................................................................ 2 2 Surface of hydrotheca and gonotheca smooth..................................................... F. macrogonus - Surface of hydrotheca and gonotheca with fine lines.................................................. F. hozawai

Fraseroscyphus macrogonus (Trebilcock, 1928) comb. nov. (Figures 3 F���G, J, 6���7) Sertularella macrogona Trebilcock, 1928: 11, pl. 1, figs. 4���4d. Symplectoscyphus macrogonus ��� Ralph, 1961a: 798, figs. 14a���b; 1961b: 109.��� Dawson, 1992: 20.��� Vervoort & Watson, 2003: 218, figs. 52A���D. Sertularella macrocarpa ��� Stranks, 1993: 17. ? Symplectoscyphus macrogonus ��� Millard, 1957: 219; 1964: 51; 1975: 316, figs. 102D���G; 1978: 199.��� Gili et al., 1989: 104, fig. 29B. ? Symplectoscyphus sp.2��� Galea & Schories, 2012: 56, fig. 7J. ? Symplectoscyphus unilateralis ��� Galea et al, 2014, fig. 8A���D. Type locality. St. Clair, Dunedin, New Zealand. Type material. ��� NMV F57892, syntype, two permanent slides (NMV F57892.1 and.2), St. Clair, Dunedin, rock pools at low tide, 1923. IV��� V, R. E. Trebilcock. Details: NMV F57892.1 (Figure 3 F), seven fragments, four male gonothecae (one originating from within the hydrothecal cavity, three growing below hydrothecae), two clinging organs, with 1���2 lobes, diameter 0.12���0.14 mm.���NMV F57892.2 (Figure 3 G), 14 fragments, five male gonothecae (two originating from within the hydrothecal cavity, two growing below hydrothecae, one detached). Doubtful Chilean specimen. Re-examined based on original photomicrographs of Symplectoscyphus sp. 2 in Galea & Schories (2012): single fragment, alcohol sample fixed through formalin, with a broken gonotheca (possibly male) and a tendrils originating from the apertures of two sperate hydrothecae, Rivers Region, Corral, La Amistad (San Carlos), 39.85744�� S, 73.44024�� W, 5 m, 2010. V. 26, Horia Galea. Lectotype designation. ���Lectotype, a fragment on the slide NMV F57892.1 as shown by an arrow in Figure 3 F, the best fertile fragment, male.���Paralectotype, the remaining fragments on slide NMV F57892.1 and F57892.2, all fertile fragments are male. Measurements. Full details are given in Table 6. Description. Trophosome. Hydrocaulus small (Figure 3 F���G), monosiphonic, erect, slightly zigzag, with two to six transverse annulations at base, sparingly and irregularly branched (Figure 6 H), hydrocladium usually growing directly out of hydrocaulus beneath hydrotheca, without axillary hydrotheca (Figure 6 H), or infrequently originating from within the hydrothecal cavity. Regular and oblique nodes on hydrocaulus and hydrocladium, each internode slightly constricted at the end and bearing a hydrotheca; some hydrocauli or hydrocladia bending irregularly, resembling tendrils, hydrotheca absent or with infrequent hydrotheca, with abundant annulations (Figure 6 G). Hydrothecae alternately arranged in two longitudinal rows usually forming an angle of 40���60�� (Figure 6 A���B), sometimes almost in one plane (Figure 6 C) or infrequently spirally (Figure 6 G); hydrotheca tubular, no wrinkles or lines on surface, a third of adcauline part adnate, bending outwards distally; some hydrothecae with fenestrae (Figure 6 E, G); margin with three cusps, one adcauline and two lateral abcauline, abcauline cusps larger; the inner perisarc of some cusps thickened (Figure 6 B���C), usually only an adcauline cusp and an outer abcauline cusp thickened (Figure 6 K); operculum composed of three triangular flaps forming a pyramid; retracted hydranth with poorly developed abcauline caecum (Figure 6 K). Clinging organ. Only a pair of opposing clinging organs were found at the base of a hydrocaulus in the type material, resembling one or two bubbly lobes opening distally with a very thin perisarc (Figure 6 I���J), accompanied by annulations in nearby nodes. Gonosome. Male gonothecae relatively large, four to five times the size of a hydrotheca, generally originating from within the hydrothecal cavity (Figure 6 D), or growing from the fenestra beneath a hydrotheca (Figure 6 E, G), pedicellate, with a short distal neck constricting towards the distal end; male gonothecae shaped like inverted cones, broadening upwards, top flattened (Figure 6 D). Female gonothecae absent in type material. Nematocysts. Two types, capsule spindle-shaped, varying in length (Figures 3 K, 6L���M). Distribution. Distributed on the east coast of South New Zealand: St. Clair Dunedin, Kaikoura drift (P.M.R.), Taylors Mistake near Christchurch (G. Knox) and Little Papanui near N.E. end of beach (Trebilcock 1928; Ralph 1961a; Vervoort & Watson 2003). The validity of the records from South Africa (Millard 1957, 1964, 1975, 1978) could not be determined as material was not re-examined. The Chile records identified as Symplectoscyphus unilateralis by Galea & Schories (2012) and Galea et al. (2014) should be investigated by re-examination of type material of S. unilateralis. Remarks. In the catalogue of Cnidaria types in the Museum of Victoria (Strank 1993), the names Sertularella macrogona Trebilcock, 1928 and Sertularia macrocarpa Bale, 1884 were reported to be transposed (Vervoort & Watson 2003). This was verified after re-examination of the type material. We can confirm that NMV F57892 (as two slides, NMV F57892.1 and NMV F57892.2) is the type material for Sertularella macrogona, while NMV F58805 and NMV F58806 are the type slides for Sertularia macrocarpa. Millard (1957, 1964, 1975, 1978) reported Fraseroscyphus macrogonus (as Symplectoscyphus macrogonus) from South Africa. Her samples developed into shrubby colonies generated by abundant tendrils originating from within the hydrothecal cavity. They were characterized by three intrathecal teeth sometimes present alternating with marginal cusps. Several tendrils existed in the type material although they were overlooked by Trebilcock (1928). It was clear that Millard (1975) had not mistaken the thickened part of the marginal cusps as internal teeth, because in her illustration (Figure 102 F), she drew both characters alternating in the same hydrotheca. However, Millard (1957) mentioned that internal teeth were not a constant character and varied in her samples, and she could not rely on this character to separate her samples into a different species from Sertularella macrogona. Two thickenings of marginal cusps in hydrothecae were very often found in the type material of Fraseroscyphus macrogonus (Figure 6 B���C, K), during re-examination using a compound microscope. We are certain that the thickening of marginal cusps is different from the intrathecal teeth illustrated by Millard (1975) for the South African records. Ralph (1961a) accepted Millard's records, and adopted the characters of tendrils and internal teeth (Millard 1957) to the descriptions of her New Zealand samples. Although Ralph (1961a) mentioned that her samples did not have internal teeth, she drew an illustration (Figure 14b) showing two thickenings of marginal cusps in a specific hydrotheca, which followed the same arrangement as that in the type material (Figure 6 K). When Vervoort & Watson (2003) re-examined Ralph's samples, they also found no internal teeth, but drew thickenings of marginal cusps in Figure 52A. We conclude that thickenings of marginal cusps in hydrothecae are common in the type material and other New Zealand records (Ralph 1961a; Vervoort & Watson 2003). The reported presence of three clear intrathecal teeth in the South African records indicates the need for further examination before the material can be reliably assigned to F. macrogonus. We are also not sure about the records by Gili et al. (1989) that were based on samples without gonotheca, collected from Namibia, West Africa at depths of 167���429 m. Some characteristics of their samples are similar to certain colonies or fragments of Fraseroscyphus macrogonus, e.g., hydrocauli unbranched, slightly zigzag, with irregular oblique nodes, hydrothecae strictly arranged in one plane; however, the hydrothecae in their samples appear to be more slender than of the type material, clear intrathecal teeth are present in the hydrothecae, and this bathymetric distribution appears to be much deeper than that of other known specimens of F. macrogonus. Without further examination of samples with gonotheca, we cannot confirm whether these records are just normal variations of F. macrogonus or belong to a separate species. Galea et al. (2014) assigned Sertularella macrogona (revised into Fraseroscyphus macrogonus here), Sertularella pulchella J��derholm, 1904, and Sertularella rentoni Bartlett, 1907 as synonyms of Symplectoscyphus unilateralis (Lamouroux, 1824) based on the characteristic shape of their gonotheca as reported in published data. Such data, however, had been interpreted differently in previous studies. Bartlett (1907), Ralph (1961a) and Vervoort & Watson (2003) did not mention the thickening of marginal cusps or intrathecal teeth in the samples of Sertularella rentoni. Ralph (1961a) and Vervoort & Watson (2003) regarded Sertularella rentoni as distinct from F. macrogonus. Galea et al. (2014) mentioned that Billard (1909) examined the type material of Symplectoscyphus unilateralis and illustrated clear intrathecal teeth. Galea et al. (2014) also illustrated clear intrathecal teeth in the record of Symplectoscyphus unilateralis from Chile. Symplectoscyphus sp. 2, another Chilian specimen, from Galea and Schories (2012) was later also treated as S. unilateralis by Galea et al. (2014) because of these shared characters. The original description of Sertularella pulchella J��derholm, 1904 is poor, but from the illustrations, the hydrothecal arrangement and gonotheca are similar to F. macrogonus. As a result, only based on the type material of F. macrogonus (male) we examined, we could not make a conclusion about its relationship with the remaining nominal species provided by Galea et al. (2014). Our redescription of the type material of F. macrogonus hopefully will help to resolve these issues in future studies., Published as part of Song, Xikun, Xiao, Zefeng, Gravili, Cinzia, Ruthensteiner, Bernhard, Mackenzie, Melanie, Wang, Shaoqing, Chen, Jinjing, Yu, Nan & Wang, Jianjun, 2016, Worldwide revision of the genus Fraseroscyphus Boero and Bouillon, 1993 (Cnidaria: Hydrozoa): an integrative approach to establish new generic diagnoses, pp. 1-37 in Zootaxa 4168 (1) on pages 21-24, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4168.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/267871, {"references":["Trebilcock, R. E. (1928) Notes on New Zealand Hydroida. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria, 41, 1 - 31.","Ralph, P. M. (1961 a) New Zealand thecate hydroids. Part III. - Family Sertulariidae. Transactions of the Royal Society of New Zealand, 88, 749 - 838.","Dawson, E. W. (1992) The Coelenterata of the New Zealand region: a handlist for curators, students and ecologists. Occasional papers of the Hutton Foundation, 1, 1 - 68.","Vervoort, W. & Watson, J. E. (2003) The marine fauna of New Zealand: Leptothecata (Cnidaria: Hydrozoa) (thecate hydroids). NIWA Biodiversity Memoir, 119, 1 - 538.","Stranks, T. N. (1993) Catalogue of recent Cnidaria type specimens in the Museum of Victoria. Occasional Papers from the Museum of Victoria, 6, 1 - 26.","Millard, N. A. H. (1957) The Hydrozoa of False Bay, South Africa. Annals of The South African Museum, 43, 173 - 243.","Gili, J. M., Vervoort, W. & Pages, F. (1989) Hydroids from the West African coast: Guinea Bissau, Namibia and South Africa. Scientia Marina, 53 (1), 67 - 112.","Galea, H. R. & Schories, D. (2012) Some hydrozoans (Cnidaria) from Central Chile and the Strait of Magellan. Zootaxa, 1, 19 - 67.","Galea, H. R., Schories, D., Forsterra, G. & Haussermann, V. (2014) New species and new records of hydroids (Cnidaria: Hydrozoa) from Chile. Zootaxa, 3852 (1), 1 - 50. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.11646 / zootaxa. 3852.1.1","Millard, N. A. H. (1964) The Hydrozoa of the south and west coasts of South Africa. Part II. The Lafoeidae, Syntheciidae and Sertulariidae. Annals of The South African Museum, 48, 1 - 56.","Millard, N. A. H. (1975) Monograph on the Hydroida of southern Africa. Annals of The South African Museum, 68, 1 - 513.","Millard, N. A. H. (1978) The geographical distribution of southern African hydroids. Annals of The South African Museum, 74, 159 - 200.","Jaderholm, E. (1904) Mitteilungen ueber einige von der Schwedischen Antarctic-Expedition 1901 - 1903 eingesammelte Hydroiden. Archives de Zoologie Experimentale et Generale, 4 (3), 1 - 14.","Bartlett, G. C. (1907) Notes on hydroid zoophytes. The Geelong Naturalist, 3, 35 - 45.","Billard, A. (1909) Revision des especes types d'hydroides de la collection Lamouroux conservee a l'Institut Botanique de Caen. Annales des Sciences Naturelles, Zoologie, Series 9, 9, 307 - 336."]}

The majority of Hydrozoa is represented by not readily noticeable, small species. In recent decades, however, taxonomic knowledge of the group has increased worldwide, with a significant number of investigations focused on the Mediterranean Sea. Over more than two decades, 115 species of hydrozoans were recorded from coastal waters along nearly 300 km of the Salento Peninsula (Apulia, Italy). For each species, records from different collections were merged into single sheets of a general database. For each species, the following information is reported: description, cnidome, biology, occurrence in Salento, worldwide distribution, and bibliography. Descriptions refer to the benthic hydroid stage and, when present, also to the planktonic medusa stage. The 115 species of Hydrozoa, recorded along the Salento coastline, represent 25% of the Mediterranean Hydrozoa fauna (totaling 461 species), and nearly 3% of 3,702 world's known species covered in a recent monograph. Four species are non-indigenous, three of them with invasive behavior (Clytia hummelincki, Clytia linearis, and Eudendrium carneum), and one species now very common (Eudendrium merulum) in Salento. The complete life cycle of Clytia paulensis (Vanhöffen, 1910) is described for the first time.

Cassiopea polyps that appeared in culture vessels of Turritopsis sp. polyps at the Seto Marine Biological Laboratory, Kyoto University in 2014 were experimentally amputated their stalks from the calyxes. On the cutting plane, planuloid buds were exclusively produced and stalks were never regenerated. Planuloids became polyps but some of them were never produced stalks. It is assumed that the polyp that accidentally lost its stalk has a chance to raise their survival rate by releasing multiple of planuloids.

Biodiversity is monophyletic: life started with a single species. Biodiversity evolved, becoming more and more complex, by a process that went through many patterns of diversification and that is still running. Biodiversity is not teleological, it did not evolve at the present stage to make a proper world for us, or to make ecosystems function; ecosystems functioned also at the dawn of life, when diversity was very low. Ecology and evolution are strictly linked, and both are historical disciplines that involve non-linear systems with a clear chaotic development, with the co-existence of strong constraints (in both form and function) and powerful contingencies (like those that caused the mass extinctions of the past). Historical predictions can only be weak, and can be formulated only when trends are identified (i.e. the attractors of chaotic systems). Modern ecology discarded natural history, setting quantitative goals that forced it to remove quality from its vision of complexity. This attitude led to enormous conceptual advances that are starting to show their limits. The identification of trends, set by constraints/attractors, and of deviations from them, due to contingencies, is an ambitious and practicable goal for mature ecology

Hydranthea margarica (Hincks, 1862) Fig. 83 A���F See Pe��a Cantero & Garc��a Carrascosa (2002) for a complete synonymy. Material examined. HCUS-S 0 91 (Hydrozoa Collection, University of Salento���fauna of the Salento Peninsula)���polyp stage. Description (based on our own observations; Boero & Sar��, 1987; Cornelius 1995; Pe��a Cantero & Garc��a Carrascosa 2002): Hydroid. Colonies stolonal bearing single hydranths at irregular intervals; hydrorhiza as stolon system with haustorial projections beneath providing additional attachment; hydranth very elongated, slender, not retractable in hydrothecae, widest just below bases of tentacles and tapering gradually to base, endodermal epithelium differentiated into distinct part the upper digestive, the basal part formed by chordal cells; hypostome conical; 20���30 amphicoronate tentacles with intertentacular web; hydrothecae very short, collar-shaped with slightly divergent walls and basal diaphragm, on smooth short pedicels inserted directly to stolon. Gonothecae short or absent, when present a shallow dish on a short pedicel, each with a single eumedusoid, developing eggs reported in hydrorhiza of colonies lacking gonophores. Colour: hydranth yellowish-white. Habitat type. Littoral (depth range: 10���20 m) (Boero & Fresi 1986; Pe��a Cantero & Garc��a Carrascosa 2002). Substrate. Usually recorded epizoic on Bryozoa, hydroids, algae, and non-living substrata. Seasonality. January���July, September���December (Llobet i Nadal 1987; Llobet et al. 1991), February���March (Puce et al. 2009), and August (Boero & Fresi 1986) in the western Mediterranean; through the year (De Vito 2006; this study) in Salento waters. Reproductive period. February, April, May (De Vito 2006; this study) in Salento waters.; April���May (Llobet et al. 1991), August (Boero & Fresi 1986), and October (Motz-Kossowska 1911) in the western Mediterranean. Eumedusoid: liberable eumedusoids, almost spherical, about 0.5 mm in diameter, with numerous cnidocysts on exumbrella; with 4 branched radial canals; gonads on manubrium filling the whole subumbrella; with 8 statocysts. Colours: radial canals filled with purplish or orange granules as well as ring canal; gonads orangepurple. Cnidome. Merotrichous haplonemes. Distribution. Atlantic, Indo-Pacific (Seychelles), Mediterranean (Motz-Kossowska 1911; Picard 1951 a; Huv�� 1954; Millard & Bouillon 1973; Garc��a Carrascosa 1981; Boero & Fresi 1986; Gili 1986; Cornelius et al. 1990; Altuna 1994; Medel & L��pez-Gonz��lez 1996; Pe��a Cantero & Garc��a Carrascosa 2002; Bouillon et al. 2004; Gravili et al. 2008 a). Records in Salento. Moderately frequent at: Porto Badisco (Presicce 1991); Il Chiapparo, Otranto (De Vito 2006; Gravili 2006; Gravili et al. 2008 a; this study). Remarks. The whole life cycle was examined in the present study. The presence of only eight statocysts in the eumedusoid could indicate some relationship of this genus with the genus Eucheilota, even though the position of the gonads on the manubrium suggest that the liberated stage is a swimming gonophore sensu Boero and Bouillon (1989). References. Hincks (1868), Motz-Kossowska (1911) as Halecium margaricum, Halecium Billardii and Halecium Billardii var. exigum; Huv�� (1954), Picard (1958 a), Teissier (1965), Garc��a Carrascosa (1981), Boero & Fresi (1986), Gili (1986), Llobet et al. (1986, 1991), Llobet i Nadal (1987), Boero & Sar�� (1987), Cornelius et al. (1990), Altuna (1994), Medel & L��pez-Gonz��lez (1996), Piraino et al. (1999), Pe��a Cantero & Garc��a Carrascosa (2002), Bouillon et al. (2004), De Vito (2006), Gravili (2006), Gravili et al. (2008 a), Puce et al. (2009)., Published as part of Gravili, Cinzia, Vito, Doris De, Camillo, Cristina Gioia Di, Martell, Luis, Piraino, Stefano & Boero, Ferdinando, 2015, The non-Siphonophoran Hydrozoa (Cnidaria) of Salento, Italy with notes on their life-cycles: an illustrated guide, pp. 1-187 in Zootaxa 3908 (1) on pages 117-119, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.3908.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/242729, {"references":["Pena Cantero, A. L. & Garcia Carrascosa, A. M. (2002) The benthic hydroid fauna of the Chafarinas Islands (Alboran Sea, western Mediterranean). Zoologische Verhandelingen Leiden, 337, 1 - 180.","Boero, F. & Sara, M. (1987) Motile sexual stages and evolution of Leptomedusae (Cnidaria). Bollettino di Zoologia, 54 (2), 131 - 139. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1080 / 11250008709355572","Cornelius, P. F. S. (1995) NorthWest European Thecate Hydroids and their Medusae. Synopses of the British Fauna, New Series, pt. 1 & 2, 1 - 347 & 1 - 386.","Boero, F. & Fresi, E. (1986) Zonation and evolution of a Rocky bottom hydroid community. Marine Ecology, 7 (2), 123 - 150. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1111 / j. 1439 - 0485.1986. tb 00152. x","Llobet Nadal, I. (1987) Faunistica y distribucion espacio-temporal de una poblacion de hydropolipos epibiontes del alga Halimeda tuna en el Mediterraneo occidental. MS Thesis. [pagination unkown]","Llobet, I., Gili, J. M. & Hughes, R. G. (1991) Horizontal, vertical and seasonal distributions of epiphytic Hydrozoa on the alga Halimeda tuna in the northwestern Mediterranean Sea. Marine Biology Berlin, 110 (1), 151 - 159. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1007 / bf 01313102","Motz-Kossowska, S. (1911) Contribution a la connaissance des hydraires de la Mediterranee occidentale. II. - Hydraires calyptoblastiques. Archives de Zoologie Experimentale et Generale, Serie 5, VI, 325 - 352.","Picard, J. (1951 a) Les hydraires des formations coralligenes des cotes francaises de la Mediterranee. Vie Milieu, 2 (2), 255 - 261.","Huve, P. (1954) Hydranthea et Campalecium, genres mediterraneens aberrants d'Hydroides de la famille des Haleciides. Recueil des Travaux de la Station Marine d'Endoume, 13, 173 - 192.","Millard, N. A. H. & Bouillon, J. (1973) Hydroids from the Seychelles (Coelenterata). Annales du Musee Royal de l'Afrique Centrale, Sciences Zoologiques, 206, 1 - 106.","Garcia-Carrascosa, A. M. (1981) Hidrozoos tecados (Hydrozoa Calyptoblastea) del litoral mediterraneo espanol: faunistica, ecologia, bionomia bentonica y biogeografia. Tesis Doctoral Universidad Valencia, 464 pp.","Cornelius, P. F. S. & Ryland, J. S. (1990) Class Hydrozoa. In: Hayward, P. J. & Ryland, J. S. (Eds.), The marine fauna of the British Isles and NorthWest Europe. Introduction and Protozoans to Arthropods. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 107 - 158.","Medel, M. D. & Lopez-Gonzalez, P. J. (1996) Updated catalogue of the Hydrozoans from the Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands with remarks on zoogeography and affinities. Scientia Marina, 60 (1), 183 - 209.","Gravili, C., Boero, F. & Licandro, P. (2008 a) Hydrozoa. Biologia Marina Mediterranea, 15 (Supplement), 71 - 91.","Presicce, M. M. (1991) Gli idroidi (Cnidaria: Hydrozoa) del litorale salentino. Degree Thesis, Marine Biology, Universita degli Studi di Lecce, 143 pp.","Boero, F. & Bouillon, J. (1989) An evolutionary interpretation of anomalous medusoid stages in the life cycles of some Leptomedusae (Cnidaria). In: Ryland, J. S. & Tyler, P. A., (Eds.), Reproduction, Genetics and Distributions of Marine Organisms. Proc. XXIII. European marine Biology Symposium. Olsen & Olsen, Fredensborg, Denmark, pp. 37 - 41.","Hincks, Th. (1868) The History of the British hydroid zoophytes. Vol. 1 & 2. John Van Voorst, London, 338 pp. & 67 pls. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.5962 / bhl. title. 1322","Picard, J. (1958 a) Origines et affinites de la faune d'hydropolypes (Gymnoblastes et Calyptoblastes) et d'hydromeduses (Anthomeduses et Leptomeduses) de la Mediterranee. Rapports et proces verbaux des Reunions de la Commission Internationale pour l'Exploration Scientifique de la Mer Mediterranee Monaco, 14, 187 - 199.","Teissier, G. (1965) Inventaire de la faune marine de Roscoff. Cnidaires-Ctenaires. Editions de la Station Biologique de Roscoff, 16, 1 - 53.","Llobet, I., Gili, J. M. & Barange, M. (1986) Estudio de una poblacion de hidropolipos epibiontes de Halimeda tuna. Study of a population of epibiont hydropolyps on Halimeda tuna. Miscelanea Zoologica Barcelona, 10, 33 - 43.","Piraino, S., Brandini, E., Denitto, F., Esposito, L. & Avian, M. (1999) La diversita degli Cnidari nella riserva marina di Ustica. Biologia Marina Mediterranea, 6 (1), 272 - 274."]}

Halocoryne epizoica Hadzi, 1917 Fig. 46 A���F See Schuchert (2010) for a complete synonymy. Material examined. HCUS-S 0 51 (Hydrozoa Collection, University of Salento���fauna of the Salento Peninsula)���polyp stage. Description (based on our own observations; Hadzi 1917 a, b; Brinckmann-Voss 1970; Bouillon 1974; Piraino et al. 1992; Schuchert 2010): Hydroid. Hydrorhiza reticular, embedded in bryozoan colonies; colonies stolonal, polymorphic; gastrozooids cylindrical, very thin, sessile, naked, lacking tentacles but with 2 prominent ectodermal swellings containing stenoteles on opposite sides of the mouth; dactylo-gonozooids stouter than gastrozooids, without mouth and tentacles, with a terminal spherical cnidocyst cluster and up to 5 additional cnidocyst clusters along one side of the body or arranged in an interrupted spiral towards hydrorhiza. Colours: gonozooids dark red, other polyps dark red to transparent. Eumedusoid: liberated or not, borne singly or in clusters on short pedicels on lower part of dactylogonozooids, bell-shaped with 4 exumbrellar cnidocyst pouches connected with marginal bulbs, manubrium reaching two thirds the height of subumbrellar cavity, without mouth; 4 radial canals; gonads completely encircling manubrium; 4 perradial marginal bulbs, without tentacles. Colours: dark red due to dense granules identical to those of the dactylo-gonozooids. Habitat type and substrate. Polyps grow in association with the bryozoan Schizoporella sanguinea (depth range: 0���40 m, also up to 100 m) (Hadzi 1917 a, b; Piraino et al. 1992; this study). Seasonality. From January to December in Salento waters (De Vito 2006; this study). Reproductive period. Fertile colonies occur in April, June���October (De Vito 2006; this study) in Salento waters. Cnidome. Stenoteles of two sizes (polyp); stenoteles of two sizes, macrobasic euryteles (?), and macrobasic mastigophores (medusa). Distribution. Endemic to the Mediterranean Sea (Brinckmann-Voss 1970; Piraino et al. 1992; Bouillon et al. 2004; Gravili et al. 2008 a; Schuchert 2010). Records in Salento. Common in the following localities: Torre dell���Inserraglio, Montagna Spaccata, La Strea, La Rotonda, Porto Badisco, Marina di Corsano, Palude del Capitano, Torre Vado, Ponte del Ciolo (Presicce 1991); Ionian and Adriatic coasts of Apulia (Piraino et al. 1992); Porto Cesareo (Boero et al. 2000); Otranto (De Vito 2006; Gravili 2006; Gravili et al. 2008 a; this study). Remarks. The whole life cycle was examined in the present study. Halocoryne epizoica engulfs and feeds on the lophophoral tentacles of its bryozoan host Schizobrachiella sanguinea (Piraino et al. 1992). References. Hadzi (1917), Picard (1958 a), Brinckmann-Voss (1970), Petersen (1990), Piraino et al. (1992, 1999), Boero et al. (2000), Bouillon et al. (2004), De Vito (2006), Gravili (2006), Gravili et al. (2008 a), Schuchert (2010)., Published as part of Gravili, Cinzia, Vito, Doris De, Camillo, Cristina Gioia Di, Martell, Luis, Piraino, Stefano & Boero, Ferdinando, 2015, The non-Siphonophoran Hydrozoa (Cnidaria) of Salento, Italy with notes on their life-cycles: an illustrated guide, pp. 1-187 in Zootaxa 3908 (1) on pages 67-69, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.3908.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/242729, {"references":["Hadzi, J. (1917 a) Rezultati biolokih istraivanja Jadranskoga mora. Hidroidi II. Halocoryne epizoica g. n. sp. n.; Lafoeina vilaevelebiti sp. n. Prirodoslovna istrazivanja hrvatske i Slavonije: potaknuta matematicko-prirodoslovnim razredom Jugoslavenske Akademije Znanosti Umjetnosti, 11 - 12, 1 - 61.","Hadzi, J. (1917 b) Ergebnisse biologischer Erfoschungen des adriatischen Meeres. Hydroiden II, Halocoryne epizoica g. n., sp. n.; Lafoeina vilae-velebiti sp. n. Izvjesca o raspravama matem prirodolovnoga razreda Zagreb, 8, 27 - 56.","Brinckmann-Voss, A. (1970) Anthomedusae / Athecata (Hydrozoa, Cnidaria) of the Mediterranean. Part I. Capitata. Fauna Flora Golfo di Napoli, 39, 1 - 96.","Piraino, S., Bouillon, J. & Boero, F. (1992) Halocoryne epizoica (Cnidaria, Hydrozoa), a hydroid that ' bites'. In: Bouillon, J., Boero, F., Cicogna, F., Gili, J. M. & Hughes, R. G. (Eds.), Aspects of hydrozoan biology. Scientia Marina, 56, pp. 141 - 147. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1017 / s 0025315400070181","Gravili, C., Boero, F. & Licandro, P. (2008 a) Hydrozoa. Biologia Marina Mediterranea, 15 (Supplement), 71 - 91.","Presicce, M. M. (1991) Gli idroidi (Cnidaria: Hydrozoa) del litorale salentino. Degree Thesis, Marine Biology, Universita degli Studi di Lecce, 143 pp.","Picard, J. (1958 a) Origines et affinites de la faune d'hydropolypes (Gymnoblastes et Calyptoblastes) et d'hydromeduses (Anthomeduses et Leptomeduses) de la Mediterranee. Rapports et proces verbaux des Reunions de la Commission Internationale pour l'Exploration Scientifique de la Mer Mediterranee Monaco, 14, 187 - 199.","Petersen, K. W. (1990) Evolution and taxonomy in capitate hydroids and medusae (Cnidaria: Hydrozoa). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 100 (2), 101 - 231. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1111 / j. 1096 - 3642.1990. tb 01862. x","Piraino, S., Brandini, E., Denitto, F., Esposito, L. & Avian, M. (1999) La diversita degli Cnidari nella riserva marina di Ustica. Biologia Marina Mediterranea, 6 (1), 272 - 274."]}

Hebella scandens (Bale, 1888) Fig. 75 A���C See Boero et al. (1997 a) for a complete synonymy. Material examined. HCUS-S 0 82 (Hydrozoa Collection, University of Salento���fauna of the Salento Peninsula)���polyp stage. Description (based on our own observations; Boero et al. 1997 a): Hydroid. Colonies stolonal; hydranths with 12���16 tentacles; hydrothecae asymmetrical, with perisarcal diaphragm, with smooth to slightly corrugated walls, flared margin, mostly oblique but bent 90 �� when growing over host hydrothecae, pedicels short, smooth or annulated. Gonothecae asymmetrical, with undulated walls, truncated distally, tapering toward base, operculum with 4 opercular flaps, bigger than hydrothecae, on short pedicels, containing up to 4 medusa buds. Habitat type and substrate. Littoral and shelf species found from the tidal level to 120 m depth (Garc��a Carrascosa 1981; Templado et al. 1986). Substrate. Algae, epizootic on other hydroids, especially Sertulariidae, sponges, bryozoans, other organisms. Seasonality. May, September (Llobet i Nadal 1987) in the Western Mediterranean; January, February, April���July, November���December (for a review see Bouillon et al. 2004); just March (De Vito 2006; this study) in Salento waters. Reproductive period. No references of fertile material from the Mediterranean. Medusa. Newly released medusa. Bell deep-campanulate, mesoglea thicker at apex, exumbrella evenly covered by nematocysts; manubrium short; mouth with 4 small lips; 4 radial canals; 2 big tentacular bulbs and 6 smaller atentaculate bulbs, 2 perradial and 4 interradial ones; with an adaxial ocellus on each marginal bulb. Cnidome. Microbasic mastigophores. Distribution. Atlantic, Indo-Pacific, Mediterranean (Medel & L��pez-Gonz��lez 1996; Boero et al. 1997 a; Bouillon et al. 2004; Gravili et al. 2008 a). Records in Salento. Rare at Otranto (De Vito 2006; Gravili 2006; Gravili et al. 2008 a; this study). Remarks. The hydrothecae can be almost symmetrical, or sharply asymmetrical, according to their position on the sertulariid hosts (for more details see Boero et al. 1997 a). Gonothecae and medusae not seen in the present study. References. Picard (1951 a, 1958 a), Millard (1957), Vervoort (1959), Rossi (1961, 1971), Millard & Bouillon (1973), Schmidt (1973), Sar�� et al. (1978), Marinopoulos (1979, 1983), Garc��a Carrascosa (1981), Isasi (1985), Gili (1986), Roca (1986), Llobet i Nadal (1987), Calder (1991), Llobet et al. (1991), Vervoort (1993), Altuna (1994), Medel & L��pez-Gonz��lez (1996) as Hebellopsis; Migotto (1996), Altuna (1996), Boero et al. (1997 a), Pe��a Cantero & Garc��a Carrascosa (2002), Bouillon et al. (2004), De Vito (2006), Gravili (2006), Gravili et al. (2008 a)., Published as part of Gravili, Cinzia, Vito, Doris De, Camillo, Cristina Gioia Di, Martell, Luis, Piraino, Stefano & Boero, Ferdinando, 2015, The non-Siphonophoran Hydrozoa (Cnidaria) of Salento, Italy with notes on their life-cycles: an illustrated guide, pp. 1-187 in Zootaxa 3908 (1) on pages 106-107, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.3908.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/242729, {"references":["Boero, F., Bouillon, J. & Kubota, S. (1997 a) The medusae of some species of Hebella Allman, 1888, and Anthohebella gen. nov. (Cnidaria, Hydrozoa, Lafoeidae), with a world synopsis of species. Zoologische Verhandelingen Leiden, 310, 1 - 53.","Garcia-Carrascosa, A. M. (1981) Hidrozoos tecados (Hydrozoa Calyptoblastea) del litoral mediterraneo espanol: faunistica, ecologia, bionomia bentonica y biogeografia. Tesis Doctoral Universidad Valencia, 464 pp.","Templado, J., Garcia-Carrascosa, M., Barateck, L., Capaccioni, R., Juan, A., Lopez-Ibor, A., Silvestre, R. & Masso, C. (1986) Estudio preliminar de la fauna asociada a los fondos coraliferos del mar de Alboran (SE de Espana). Preliminary study of associated fauna of coralliferous bottoms of the Alboran Sea (southeastern Spain). Boletin del Instituto Espanol de Oceanografia, 3 (4), 93 - 104.","Llobet Nadal, I. (1987) Faunistica y distribucion espacio-temporal de una poblacion de hydropolipos epibiontes del alga Halimeda tuna en el Mediterraneo occidental. MS Thesis. [pagination unkown]","Medel, M. D. & Lopez-Gonzalez, P. J. (1996) Updated catalogue of the Hydrozoans from the Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands with remarks on zoogeography and affinities. Scientia Marina, 60 (1), 183 - 209.","Gravili, C., Boero, F. & Licandro, P. (2008 a) Hydrozoa. Biologia Marina Mediterranea, 15 (Supplement), 71 - 91.","Picard, J. (1951 a) Les hydraires des formations coralligenes des cotes francaises de la Mediterranee. Vie Milieu, 2 (2), 255 - 261.","Picard, J. (1958 a) Origines et affinites de la faune d'hydropolypes (Gymnoblastes et Calyptoblastes) et d'hydromeduses (Anthomeduses et Leptomeduses) de la Mediterranee. Rapports et proces verbaux des Reunions de la Commission Internationale pour l'Exploration Scientifique de la Mer Mediterranee Monaco, 14, 187 - 199.","Vervoort, W. (1959) The Hydroida of the tropical west coast of Africa. Atlantide Report. Scientific Results of the Danish Expedition to the Coasts of Tropical West Africa, 1945 - 1946, 5, 211 - 325.","Rossi, L. (1961) Idroidi viventi sulle scogliere del promontorio di Portofino (Golfo di Genova). Annali del Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Genova, 72, 68 - 85.","Rossi, L. (1971) Guida a Cnidari e Ctenofori d'Italia. Quaderni della Civica Stazione Idrobiologica di Milano, 2, 1 - 101.","Millard, N. A. H. & Bouillon, J. (1973) Hydroids from the Seychelles (Coelenterata). Annales du Musee Royal de l'Afrique Centrale, Sciences Zoologiques, 206, 1 - 106.","Schmidt, H. E. (1973) Biogeographical problems of the Red Sea area exemplified by hydroids. In: Zeitschel, B. & Gerlach, S. A. (Eds.), The Biology of the Indian Ocean. Ecological studies, Analysis and Synthesis, 3, pp. 283 - 287. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1007 / 978 - 3 - 642 - 65468 - 8 _ 22","Sara, M., Balduzzi, A., Boero, F., Pansini, M., Pessani, D. & Pronzato, R. (1978) Analisi di un popolamento bentonico di falesia del Promontorio di Portofino: dati preliminari. Bollettino dei Musei e degli Istituti Biologici dell'Universita di Genova, 46, 119 - 137.","Marinopoulos, J. (1979) Distribution des Eudendrium dans la region Marseillaise. Etude preliminaire. Rapports et Proces Verbaux des Reunions, Commission Internationale pour l'Exploration Scientifique de la Mer Mediterranee, 25 - 26 (4), 117 - 118.","Marinopoulos, J. (1983) Contribution a l'etude des hydraires de la Mediterranee. Dynamique des colonies d'Hydraires. Rapports et Proces Verbaux des Reunions, Commission Internationale pour l'Exploration Scientifique de la Mer Mediterranee, 28 (3), 295 - 296.","Isasi (Urdangarin), I. (1985) Fauna de Cnidarios bentonicos del abra de Bilbao. Memoria. Presentada para optar al grado de Licenciado en Ciencias Biologicas por Inigo Isasi Urdangarin. Universidad del pais Vasco. Euskal Herriko Unibersitatea. Facultad de Ciencias, Departemento de Biologia. Fauna of the benthic cnidarians of the Abra de Bilbao. Gratuation thesis, University of the Basque Country, 209 pp.","Roca, I. (1986) Estudio de los Cnidarios Bentonicos de las aguas costeras de Mallorca. Tesis, Universitat de les illes Balears, Facultat de Ciencies, Palma de Mallorca, 32 pp.","Calder, D. R. (1991) Shallow-water hydroids of Bermuda. The Thecatae, exclusive of Plumularioidea. Royal Ontario Museum Life Sciences Contribution, 154, i - iv, 1 - 140. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.2307 / 1352274","Llobet, I., Gili, J. M. & Hughes, R. G. (1991) Horizontal, vertical and seasonal distributions of epiphytic Hydrozoa on the alga Halimeda tuna in the northwestern Mediterranean Sea. Marine Biology Berlin, 110 (1), 151 - 159. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1007 / bf 01313102","Vervoort, W. (1993) Report on hydroids (Hydrozoa, Cnidaria) in the collection of the Zoological Museum, University of Tel- Aviv, Israel. Zoologische Mededelingen Leiden, 67 (40), 537 - 565.","Migotto, A. E. (1996) Benthic shallow-water hydroids (Cnidaria, Hydrozoa) of the coast of Sao Sebastiao, Brazil, including a checklist of Brazilian hydroids. Zoologische Verhandelingen Leiden, 306, 1 - 125.","Pena Cantero, A. L. & Garcia Carrascosa, A. M. (2002) The benthic hydroid fauna of the Chafarinas Islands (Alboran Sea, western Mediterranean). Zoologische Verhandelingen Leiden, 337, 1 - 180."]}

Clytia hummelincki (Leloup, 1935) Fig. 102 A���F See Calder (1991) for a complete synonymy. Material examined. HCUS-S 109 p and HCUS-S 109m (Hydrozoa Collection, University of Salento���fauna of the Salento Peninsula)���polyp and medusa stages. Description (based on our own observations; Gravili et al. 2008 b): Hydroid. Hydrorhiza reticular and anastomosed; colony stolonal; pedicels long, with several distal annulations (generally three) and four proximal ones, sub-hydrothecal spherule present, diaphragm oblique; hydranth with peduncled hypostome; with 22 amphicoronate filiform tentacles; hydrotheca short and wide, about 0.35 mm high, 0.30 mm wide, hydrothecal rim smooth. Gonothecae sessile to shortly stalked, truncate, tapering below, 0.8 mm in height and 0.28 mm maximum diameter, with 2 basal annulations, borne on hydrorhiza, only one medusa bud per gonotheca. Habitat type and substrate. Sea urchin barrens (depth: 0.5��� 1 m) (Gravili et al. 2008 b). Medusa. Adult. Bell almost spherical, 2.52 mm in diameter and 2.03 mm high; mouth quadratic, with 4 large ondulate lobes; 4 male oval gonads in the upper side of radial canals; 8 marginal bulbs; 8 statocysts along circular canal. Developmental stages. Newly released with bell almost spherical, 1.24 mm in diameter, 0.85 mm high; manubrium 0.27 mm long; mouth quadratic, with 4 lobes; 4 radial canals; gonads absent; velum about 0.16 mm wide; 8 marginal bulbs (4 large, pyriform, perradial and tentacular ones; 4 small, rounded and interradial); tentacular tips clavate; 8 statocysts along circular canal, with one statolith each. Cnidome. Small microbasic b-mastigophores on both tentacles and hydranth body (polyp); atrichous isorhizas, microbasic mastigophores, on tentacles and manubrium (medusa). Seasonality. June���October (De Vito 2006; Gravili et al. 2008 b; this study) in Salento waters. Reproductive period. August, September in Salento waters (De Vito 2006; Gravili et al. 2008 b; this study). Distribution. Circumtropical (West Indies, Gulf of Mexico, Ghana, South Africa, Papua New Guinea, Bermuda, Brazil, Indonesia, Galapagos Islands, and the Mediterranean) (Bouillon et al. 2004; Boero et al. 2005; Gravili et al. 2008 a, b; Gravili et al. 2010; Occhipinti-Ambrogi et al. 2011). Records in Salento. Common at: Torre Lapillo, S.ta Caterina (Andreano 2007; Gravili et al. 2008 b); Sant'Andrea, S. Emiliano, Marina di Andrano, Tricase, Tiggiano, Gagliano, S. Maria di Leuca, Torre Suda, Porto Racale, Isola di S. Andrea, Grotta Corvine, Punta Longa, S. Isidoro, Porto Cesareo, Isola della Malva (Gravili et al. 2008 b); Otranto (De Vito 2006; Gravili 2006; Gravili et al. 2008 a, b; Piraino et al. 2013; this study). Remarks. The whole life cycle was examined in the present study. C. hummelincki is a successful invader frequent in shallow sea urchin barrens, where it forms a ���belt��� (Gravili et al. 2008 b). The present description, and that reported by Gravili et al. (2008 b) do not cover the whole development of the medusa, since complete gonad maturation and spawning were not observed. Indeed, the medusae do not grow easily under laboratory conditions and, probably, their natural diet has much different requirements than what is available in an Artemia -based diet. References. Millard (1975); Cornelius (1982) as Laomedea; Calder (1991), Boero et al. (1997 b), Boero (2002), Bouillon et al. (2004), Boero et al. (2005), De Vito (2006), Gravili (2006), Gravili et al. (2008 a, b), Gravili et al. (2010), Occhipinti-Ambrogi et al. (2011), Piraino et al. (2013)., Published as part of Gravili, Cinzia, Vito, Doris De, Camillo, Cristina Gioia Di, Martell, Luis, Piraino, Stefano & Boero, Ferdinando, 2015, The non-Siphonophoran Hydrozoa (Cnidaria) of Salento, Italy with notes on their life-cycles: an illustrated guide, pp. 1-187 in Zootaxa 3908 (1) on pages 143-145, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.3908.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/242729, {"references":["Calder, D. R. (1991) Shallow-water hydroids of Bermuda. The Thecatae, exclusive of Plumularioidea. Royal Ontario Museum Life Sciences Contribution, 154, i - iv, 1 - 140. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.2307 / 1352274","Gravili, C., D'ambrosio, P., Di Camillo, C., Renna, G., Bouillon, J. & Boero, F. (2008 b) Clytia hummelincki (Hydroidomedusae: Leptomedusae) in the Mediterranean Sea. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 88 (8), 1547 - 1553. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1017 / s 0025315408001975","Gravili, C., Boero, F. & Licandro, P. (2008 a) Hydrozoa. Biologia Marina Mediterranea, 15 (Supplement), 71 - 91.","Gravili, C., Belmonte, G., Cecere, E., Denitto, F., Giangrande, A., Guidetti, P., Longo, C., Mastrototaro, F., Moscatello, S., Petrocelli, A., Piraino, S., Terlizzi, A. & Boero, F. (2010) Nonindigenous species along the Apulian coast, Italy. Chemistry and Ecology, 26 (Supplement), 121 - 142. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1080 / 02757541003627654","Occhipinti-Ambrogi, A., Marchini, A., Cantone, G., Castelli, A., Chimenz, C., Cormaci, M., Froglia, C., Furnari, G., Gambi, M. C., Giaccone, G., Giangrande, A., Gravili, C., Mastrototaro, F., Mazziotti, C., Orsi-Relini, L. & Piraino, S. (2011) Alien species along the Italian coasts: an overview. Biological Invasions, 13 (1), 215 - 237. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1007 / s 10530 - 010 - 9803 - y","Andreano, F. (2007) Identificazione degli idroidi (Cnidaria: Hydrozoa) nella fascia batimetrica dei 0 - 5 m. Degree Thesis, Marine Biology, University of Salento, 152 pp.","Piraino, S., De Vito, D., Brodbeck, E., Di Camillo, G. C., Fanelli, G. & Boero, F. (2013) Destructive standard squares or lowimpact visually driven collection? A comparison of methods for quantitative samplings of benthic hydrozoans. Italian Journal of Zoology, 80 (3), 424 - 436. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1080 / 11250003.2013.787461","Millard, N. A. H. (1975) Monograph on the Hydroida of southern Africa. Annals of the South African Museum, 68, 1 - 513.","Cornelius, P. F. S. (1982) Hydroids and medusae of the family Campanulariidae recorded from the eastern North Atlantic, with a world synopsis of genera. Bulletin of the British Museum of Natural History, Zoology, 42 (2), 37 - 148.","Boero, F., Gravili, C., Denitto, F., Miglietta, M. P. & Bouillon, J. (1997 b) The rediscovery of Codonorchis octaedrus (Hydroidomedusae, Anthomedusae, Pandeidae), with an update of the Mediterranean hydroidomedusan biodiversity. Italian Journal of Zoology, 64 (4), 359 - 365. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1080 / 11250009709356223"]}

Nemertesia ramosa (Lamarck, 1816) Fig. 89 A���E See Pe��a Cantero & Garc��a Carrascosa (2002) for a complete synonymy. Material examined. HCUS-S 0 96 (Hydrozoa Collection, University of Salento���fauna of the Salento Peninsula). Description (after Ramil & Vervoort 1992; Cornelius 1995; Medel & Vervoort 1995): Hydroid. Hydrorhiza as strongly intertwined mat of many ramified tubes; colonies erect, well developed; hydrocauli large, polysiphonic, branched, up to about 200 mm high, one of the tubes of greater diameter, giving rise to hydrocladia in the monosiphonic and weakly polysiphonic parts and divided into internodes by transverse nodes, with hydrocladia-bearing apophyses at nodes, in opposite pairs in younger parts of the axis, in verticils of 3���10 in the older ones, verticils of succeeding pairs alternate, apophyses with a mamelon on the upper surface and several nematothecae (up to 7), coenosarc of main stem in several tubes, perisarc very thick, contrary to the thin perisarc of the hydrocladia; hydrocladia separated into thecate internodes by means of transverse nodes, each with one hydrotheca and 4 nematothecae, one median inferior, 2 lateral ones and one median superior one at the distal part of the segment; hydrothecae small, cup-shaped, entirely adnate, rim even, aperture at right angle with the axis; nematothecae all two-chambered, conical, basal chamber longer than apical one, chamber shorter, with a wide adcauline embayment. Male and female gonothecae similar, ovoid, obliquely truncated distally with a subterminal and oval aperture, narrower basally, with a short pedicel, male gonotheca with large circular, slightly oblique aperture, female gonotheca larger, aperture more or less oval, more oblique than in male gonotheca, both sexes insert on apophyses. Colours: coenosarc yellow-buff; hydrocladia colourless; male gonothecal contents white, female orange. Cnidome. Microbasic mastigophores. Habitat type. Muddy and sandy bottoms, it has been found from 5 to about 500 m depth (Gili 1986; Ramil & Vervoort 1992). Substrate. Coralline shoals, hydroids, carapace of Decapoda of the genus Pisa, anthozoans or directly attached in mud or to rocks, shells of bivalves on non-living substrata, both biotic (remains of organism) and abiotic (pebbles). Seasonality. August���September (Bianchi et al. 1993 a) in the Tyrrhenian Sea; June, July, October���March (Bouillon et al. 2004); January (Galea 2007) in the western Mediterranean; September (Mastrototaro et al. 2010) in Salento waters. Reproductive period. January (Roca 1986), February (Stechow 1919), July (Picard 1955; Pe��a Cantero & Garc��a Carrascosa 2002), December (Roca 1986) in the western Mediterranean; September (Mastrototaro et al. 2010) in Salento waters. Distribution. Widely distributed in the eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean (Ramil & Vervoort 1992; Medel & Vervoort 1995; Ramil et al. 1998; Schuchert 2001 a; Bouillon et al. 2004; Fanelli et al. 2013). Records in Salento. Rare at S. Maria di Leuca (Mastrototaro et al. 2010). Other Apulian records: Northern coast (Marano et al. 1991). Remarks. Juvenile Nemertesia ramosa resembles N. norvegica with which it may have been confounded quite often; indeed, their microscopical structure is also very similar (for more details see Schuchert 2001 a). References. Carus (1884), Lo Bianco (1909), Neppi (1921), Stechow (1919), Broch (1933), Leloup (1934), Picard (1958 a), Rossi (1971), Garc��a Carrascosa (1981), Roca (1986), Garc��a-Carrascosa et al. (1987) as N. disticha; Ramil (1988), Marano et al. (1991), Morri et al. (1991), Ramil & Vervoort (1992), ��lvarez Claudio (1993), Medel & Vervoort (1995), Medel & L��pez-Gonz��lez (1996), Piraino et al. (1999), Ans��n Ag��s et al. (2001), Pe��a Cantero & Garc��a Carrascosa (2002), Bouillon et al. (2004), Galea (2007), Mastrototaro et al. (2010)., Published as part of Gravili, Cinzia, Vito, Doris De, Camillo, Cristina Gioia Di, Martell, Luis, Piraino, Stefano & Boero, Ferdinando, 2015, The non-Siphonophoran Hydrozoa (Cnidaria) of Salento, Italy with notes on their life-cycles: an illustrated guide, pp. 1-187 in Zootaxa 3908 (1) on pages 125-126, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.3908.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/242729, {"references":["Pena Cantero, A. L. & Garcia Carrascosa, A. M. (2002) The benthic hydroid fauna of the Chafarinas Islands (Alboran Sea, western Mediterranean). Zoologische Verhandelingen Leiden, 337, 1 - 180.","Cornelius, P. F. S. (1995) NorthWest European Thecate Hydroids and their Medusae. Synopses of the British Fauna, New Series, pt. 1 & 2, 1 - 347 & 1 - 386.","Medel, M. D. & Vervoort, W. (1995) Plumularian hydroids (Cnidaria: Hydrozoa) from the Strait of Gibraltar and nearly areas. Zoologische Verhandelingen Leiden, 300, 1 - 72.","Bianchi, C. N., Ceppodomo, I., Galli, C., Sgorbini, S., Dell'amico, F. & Morri, C. (1993 a) Benthos dei Mari Toscani. I: Livorno- Isola d'Elba (Crociera Enea 1985). In: Ferretti, O., Immordillo, F. & Damiani, V. (Eds.), Archipelago Toscano. Studio oceanografico, sedimentologico, geochimico e biologico. ENEA, Roma, Serie Studi Ambientali, pp. 263 - 290.","Galea, H. R. (2007) Hydrozoa, La Ciotat and nearby areas, Mediterranean coast of France. Check List, 3 (3), 193 - 199.","Roca, I. (1986) Estudio de los Cnidarios Bentonicos de las aguas costeras de Mallorca. Tesis, Universitat de les illes Balears, Facultat de Ciencies, Palma de Mallorca, 32 pp.","Stechow, E. (1919) Zur Kenntnis der Hydroidenfauna des Mittelmeeres, Amerikas und anderer Gebiete, nebst Angaben uber einige Kirchenpauersche Typen von Plumulariden. Zoologische Jahrbucher, Abeilung fur Systematik, 42 (1), 1 - 172.","Picard, J. (1955) Nouvelles recherches sur les hydromeduses des Herbiers mediterraneens de Posidonies. Recueil des Travaux de la Station Marine D'Endoume, 15 (Bulleton 9), 59 - 71.","Ramil, F., Vervoort, W. & Ansin, J. A. (1998) Report on the Haleciidae and Plumularioidea (Cnidaria, Hydrozoa) collected by the French SEAMOUNT 1 Expedition. Zoologische Verhandelingen Leiden, 322, 1 - 42.","Schuchert, P. (2001 a) Hydroids of Greenland and Iceland (Cnidaria, Hydrozoa). Meddelelser om Gronland, Bioscience, 53, 1 - 184.","Marano, G., Ungaro, N. & Vaccarella, R. (1991) Nota preliminare sulle comunita di macroinvertebrati dei fondi strascicabili dell'Adriatico pugliese. Thalassia Salentina, 19, 3 - 19.","Carus, J. V. (1884) Prodromus faunae mediterraneae sive descriptiones animalium Mare Mediterranei incolarum quam comparata silva rerum quatenus innotuit adiectis locis et nominibus vulgaribus eorumque auctoribus in commodum zoologorum. Pars I. E. Schweizerbart, Stuttgart, 524 pp. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.5962 / bhl. title. 11523","Lo Bianco, S. (1909) Notize biologiche riguardanti specialmente il periodo di maturita sessuale degli animali del Golfo di Napoli. Mittheilungen aus der Zoologischen Station zu Neapel, 19 (4), 513 - 763.","Neppi, V. (1921) Nuove osservazioni sui polipi idroidi del Golfo di Napoli. Pubblicazioni della Stazione Zoologica di Napoli, 3, 1 - 31.","Broch, H. (1933) Zur kenntnis der Adriatischen fauna Von Split. Skrifter Norske Videnskaps-Akademi i Oslo. Matematisknaturvidenskapelig klasse, 4, 1 - 115.","Leloup, E. (1934) Note sur les hydropolypes de la rade de Villefranche-sur-Mer (France). Bulletin du Musee Royal d'Histoire naturelle de Belgique, 10 (31), 1 - 18.","Picard, J. (1958 a) Origines et affinites de la faune d'hydropolypes (Gymnoblastes et Calyptoblastes) et d'hydromeduses (Anthomeduses et Leptomeduses) de la Mediterranee. Rapports et proces verbaux des Reunions de la Commission Internationale pour l'Exploration Scientifique de la Mer Mediterranee Monaco, 14, 187 - 199.","Rossi, L. (1971) Guida a Cnidari e Ctenofori d'Italia. Quaderni della Civica Stazione Idrobiologica di Milano, 2, 1 - 101.","Garcia-Carrascosa, A. M. (1981) Hidrozoos tecados (Hydrozoa Calyptoblastea) del litoral mediterraneo espanol: faunistica, ecologia, bionomia bentonica y biogeografia. Tesis Doctoral Universidad Valencia, 464 pp.","Garcia-Carrascosa, A. M., Escarti, J. V. & Silvestre, R. (1987) Cnidarios bentonicos de las Islas Columbretes. In: Alonso Matilla, L. A., Carretero, J. L. & Garcia-Carrascosa, A. M. (Eds.), Islas Columbretes. Contribucion al estudio de su medio natural, Conselleria d'Obres Publiques, Urbanisme i Transports. Generalitat Valenciana, Valencia, pp. 363 - 389.","Ramil Blanco, F. J. (1988) Hidrozoos de Galicia. Memoria que, para optar al Grado de Doctor en Biologia, presenta D. Francisco Ramil Blanco. Facultad de Biologia, Universidad de Santiago. Santiago de Compostela, 525 pp.","Morri, C., Bavestrello, G. & Bianchi, C. N. (1991) Faunal and ecological notes on some benthic cnidarian species from the Tuscan Archipelago and eastern Ligurian Sea (western Mediterranean). Bollettino dei Musei e degli Istituti Biologici dell'Universita di Genova, 54 - 55, 27 - 47.","Alvarez Claudio, C. (1993) Hidrozoos bentonicos y catalogo de antozoos de la plataforma y talud continentales de la costa central de Asturias. PhD Thesis, Universidad de Oviedo, 458 pp.","Medel, M. D. & Lopez-Gonzalez, P. J. (1996) Updated catalogue of the Hydrozoans from the Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands with remarks on zoogeography and affinities. Scientia Marina, 60 (1), 183 - 209.","Piraino, S., Brandini, E., Denitto, F., Esposito, L. & Avian, M. (1999) La diversita degli Cnidari nella riserva marina di Ustica. Biologia Marina Mediterranea, 6 (1), 272 - 274.","Ansin Agis, J., Ramil F. & Vervoort, W. (2001) Atlantic Leptolida (Hydrozoa, Cnidaria) of the families Aglaopheniidae, Halopteriidae, Kirchenpaueriidae and Plumulariidae collected during the CANCAP and Mauritania-II expeditions of the National Museum of Natural History, Leiden, the Netherlands. Zoologische Verhandelingen Leiden, 333, 1 - 268."]}

Amphinema dinema (P��ron and Lesueur, 1810) Fig. 29 A, B See Schuchert (2007) for a complete synonymy. Material examined. HCUS-S 0 34 (Hydrozoa Collection, University of Salento���fauna of the Salento Peninsula)���polyp stage. Description (based on our own observations; Rees & Russell 1937; Russell 1953; Schuchert 2007, 2012): Hydroid. Hydrorhiza as creeping stolons; colony stolonal; hydrocaulus longer than hydranth, unbranched, covered by thin perisarc, often covered by detritus, extending to the base of the hydranth, distal perisarc margin indistinct, basal perisarc with or without annulations; hydranths fusiform, hypostome rounded-conical; with 8���14 amphicoronate filiform tentacles in one whorl; medusa buds ovoid to pyriform, enclosed in thin perisarc membrane, borne singly on short pedicel arising from hydrorhiza. Colour: hydranth bright orange-red. Habitat type. Posidonia, depth range 0.5��� 20 m (Boero 1981 a, b; Boero & Fresi 1986), and on several substrates. Substrate. Eudendrium glomeratum (Hydrozoa), Sertularella crassicaulis (Hydrozoa), Cellaria fistulosa (Bryozoa) and dead colonies of Bryozoa, gorgonians, Posidonia rhizomes, algae, sponges, barnacles. Seasonality. In the Mediterranean Sea from January to December (Boero & Fresi 1986; this study). Reproductive period. In the Tyrrhenian Sea (Brinckmann-Voss 1987), fertile colonies occur from May to August. Medusa. Adult. Bell slightly higher than wide, up to 4 mm wide and 6 mm high, mesoglea of uniform thickness besides top, with a large, conical, solid, apical projection; manubrium flask-shaped, cross-like in section, almost as long as bell cavity, emerald green in colour; mouth cruciform with 4 prominent, recurved lips; without mesenteries; 8 gonads in adradial pads with smooth surface; 2 large elongated conical basal bulbs, each with a very long tapering opposed marginal tentacle, violet, their proximal part intensively purple; 12���24 small marginal warts, without tentaculae; without ocelli. Developmental stages. Newly liberated medusa spherical, no apical projection present, scattered nematocysts on exumbrella; manubrium cylindrical, about 1 / 3 of height of bell cavity, reddish orange; two opposite tentacular marginal bulbs, same in colour as manubrium, each with a long tentacle, at place of other tentacles only small marginal warts. Cnidome. Microbasic euryteles, desmonemes (hydroid); only microbasic euryteles (medusa). Distribution. Atlantic, Indo-Pacific, Mediterranean (Motz-Kossowska 1905; Neppi & Stiasny 1913; Russell 1953; Vannucci 1957; Kramp 1961; Patriti 1970; Goy et al. 1991; Medel & L��pez-Gonz��lez 1996; Schuchert 1996, 2007; Gravili et al. 2008 a; Puce et al. 2009; Touzri et al. 2010). Records in Salento. Rare at: Porto Cesareo, S.ta Caterina, Otranto (Ionian and Adriatic Apulian coast) (Denitto 1996; Miglietta et al. 2000; this study). Remarks. The life cycle of A. dinema has been investigated by Rittenhouse (1910), Rees & Russell (1937), Schuchert (1996), and in this study. References. Schneider (1898), Motz-Kossowska (1905), Rees & Russell (1937), Russell (1953), Tr��gouboff & Rose (1957), Picard (1958 a), Kramp (1959), Rossi (1961), Balduzzi et al. (1980), Boero (1981 a, b), Boero & Fresi (1986), Medel & L��pez-Gonz��lez (1996), Schuchert (1996), Miglietta et al. (2000), Bouillon et al. (2004), Benović et al. (2005), Gravili (2006), Schuchert (2007, 2012), Gravili et al. (2008 a), Puce et al. (2009), Touzri et al. (2010)., Published as part of Gravili, Cinzia, Vito, Doris De, Camillo, Cristina Gioia Di, Martell, Luis, Piraino, Stefano & Boero, Ferdinando, 2015, The non-Siphonophoran Hydrozoa (Cnidaria) of Salento, Italy with notes on their life-cycles: an illustrated guide, pp. 1-187 in Zootaxa 3908 (1) on pages 44-45, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.3908.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/242729, {"references":["Rees, W. J. & Russell, F. S. (1937) On rearing the hydroids of certain medusae, with an account of the methods used. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 22 (1), 61 - 82. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1017 / s 0025315400011875","Russell, F. S. (1953) The medusae of the British Isles, Anthomedusae, Leptomedusae, Limnomedusae, Trachymedusae and Narcomedusae. London, Cambridge University Press, 530 pp. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1126 / science. 119.3095.562","Boero, F. (1981 a) Systematics and ecology of the hydroid population of two Posidonia oceanica meadows. Pubblicazioni della Stazione zoologica di Napoli, 2 (3), 181 - 197. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1111 / j. 1439 - 0485.1981. tb 00093. x","Boero, F. (1981 b) Bathimetric distribution of the epifauna of a Posidonia meadow of the Isle of Ischia (Naples): Hydroids. Rapports et Proces-Verbaux des Reunions Commision Internationale pour l'Exploration Scientifique de la Mer Mediterranee, Monaco, 27 (2), 197 - 198.","Boero, F. & Fresi, E. (1986) Zonation and evolution of a Rocky bottom hydroid community. Marine Ecology, 7 (2), 123 - 150. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1111 / j. 1439 - 0485.1986. tb 00152. x","Brinckmann-Voss, A. (1987) Seasonal distribution of hydromedusae (Cnidaria, Hydrozoa) from the Gulf of Naples and vicinity, with observations on sexual and asexual reproduction in some species. In: Bouillon, J., Boero, F., Cicogna, F. & Cornelius, P. F. S. (Eds.), Modern trends in the Systematics, Ecology and Evolution of Hydroids and Hydromedusae. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp. 133 - 141.","Motz-Kossowska, S. (1905) Contribution a la connaissance des hydraires de la Mediterranee occidentale. I. - Hydraires Gymnoblastiques. Archives de Zoologie Experimentale et Generale, Serie 4, 3, 39 - 98.","Neppi, V. & Stiasny, G. (1913) Die Hydromedusen des Golfes von Triest. Arbeiten aus der Zoologischen Instituten der Universiiat Wien und der Zoologischen Station in Triest, 20 (1), 23 - 92.","Vannucci, M. (1957) On Brazilian hydromedusae and their distribution in relation to different water masses. Boletim do Instituto Oceanografico, Sao Paulo, 8 (1 - 2), 23 - 109. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1590 / s 0373 - 55241957000100002","Kramp, P. L. (1961) Synopsis of the medusae of the world. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 40, 1 - 469. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1017 / s 0025315400007347","Patriti, G. (1970) Catalogue des cnidaires et ctenaires des cotes Atlantiques marocaines. Travaux de l'Institut Scientifique Cherifien et de la Faculte des Sciences, Series Zoologie, 35, 1 - 149.","Goy, J., Lakkis, S. & Zeidane, R. (1991) Les meduses (Cnidaria) des eaux Libanaises. The medusae Cnidaria of Lebanese waters. Annales de l'Institut Oceanographique de Monaco, 67 (2), 99 - 128.","Medel, M. D. & Lopez-Gonzalez, P. J. (1996) Updated catalogue of the Hydrozoans from the Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands with remarks on zoogeography and affinities. Scientia Marina, 60 (1), 183 - 209.","Schuchert, P. (1996) The marine fauna of New Zealand: Athecate hydroids and their medusae (Cnidaria: Hydrozoa). New Zealand Oceanographic Institute Memoir, 106, 1 - 159.","Gravili, C., Boero, F. & Licandro, P. (2008 a) Hydrozoa. Biologia Marina Mediterranea, 15 (Supplement), 71 - 91.","Touzri, C., Yahia, O. K. D., Hamdi, H., Goy, J. & Yahia, M. N. D. (2010) Spatio-temporal distribution of Medusae (Cnidaria) in the Bay of Bizerte (South Western Mediterranean Sea). Cahiers de Biologie Marine, 51, 167 - 176.","Denitto, F. (1996) Etologia alimentare e cicli vitali di alcune specie di Hydroidomedusae: Anthomedusae / Filifera e Leptomedusae (Hydrozoa). Degree Thesis, Biology, Universita degli Studi di Lecce, 176 pp.","Miglietta, M. P., Della Tommasa, L., Denitto, F., Gravili, C., Pagliara, P., Bouillon, J. & Boero, F. (2000) Approaches to the ethology of hydroids and medusae (Cnidaria, Hydrozoa). In: Mills, C. E., Boero, F., Migotto, A. & Gili, J. M. (Eds.), Trends in Hydrozoan Biology - IV. Scientia Marina, 64 (Supplement 1), pp. 63 - 71. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.3989 / scimar. 2000.64 s 163","Schneider, K. C. (1898) Hydropolypen von Rovigno, nebst Uebersicht uber das System des Hydropolypen im Allgemein. Zoologische Jahrbucher, 10 (4), 472 - 555.","Tregouboff, G. & Rose, M. (1957) Manuel de Planctonologie Mediterraneenne. Tome I & II. C. N. R. S., Paris, 587 pp. & 31 pls. [pls. 62 - 93].","Picard, J. (1958 a) Origines et affinites de la faune d'hydropolypes (Gymnoblastes et Calyptoblastes) et d'hydromeduses (Anthomeduses et Leptomeduses) de la Mediterranee. Rapports et proces verbaux des Reunions de la Commission Internationale pour l'Exploration Scientifique de la Mer Mediterranee Monaco, 14, 187 - 199.","Kramp, P. L. (1959) The Hydromedusae of the Atlantic Ocean and adjacent waters. Dana-Report, 46, 1 - 283.","Rossi, L. (1961) Idroidi viventi sulle scogliere del promontorio di Portofino (Golfo di Genova). Annali del Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Genova, 72, 68 - 85.","Balduzzi, A., Boero, F., Cattaneo, R., Pansini, M., Pessani, D., Pronzato, R. & Sara, M. (1980) Ricerche sull'insediamento dello zoobenthos in alcune grotte marine della Penisola Sorrentina. Memorie di Biologia Marina e di Oceanografia, Supplement 10, 121 - 127.","Benovic, A., Lucic, D., Onofri, V., Batistic, M. & Njire, J. (2005) Bathymetric distribution of medusae in the open waters of the middle and south Adriatic Sea during spring 2002. Journal of Plankton Research, 27 (1), 79 - 89. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1093 / plankt / fbh 153"]}

Aglaophenia harpago von Schenck, 1965 Fig. 51 A���C See Svoboda & Cornelius (1991) for a complete synonymy. Material examined. HCUS-S 0 57 (Hydrozoa Collection, University of Salento���fauna of the Salento Peninsula). Description (based on our own observations; Svoboda 1979; Svoboda & Cornelius 1991): Hydroid. Hydrorhizae growing along seagrass blades; colonies erect; hydrocauli monosiphonic, up to 18 mm high, bending backwards, one prosegment basally separated by a hinge joint which allows bending in response to current surge, remaining parts of the axis composed of segments bearing one pseudonematotheca and 3 guttershaped nematothecae, nodes slightly oblique, intermediate segments with frontal nematothecae occur distally in some stems between hydrocladia-bearing segments, caulus ended by thick, narrow hook, occurring especially in spring and summer, coenosarc of the colony with zooxanthellae; hydrocladia more spaced than in other Aglaophenia species, cormidia with one hydrotheca and 3 nematothecae; hydrothecae may vary from long and narrow in some colonies to wider and shorter in other ones (length/breadth ratio: 1.5���2.0); corbulae short, with 4���6 pairs of ribs fused in female, partly open in male, colonies dioecious. Colours: hydrocauli, hydrocladia and corbulae brown. Cnidome. Microbasic mastigophores. Habitat type. Depth range: 3���40 m, but at deeper zones only in clear water (Boero & Fresi 1986; Svoboda & Cornelius 1991). Substrate. Posidonia and Cymodocea leaves. Seasonality. In the Ligurian Sea, from January to December (Boero & Fresi 1986), May, September (Giovannetti et al. 2010); in Salento waters from May to June (this study). Reproductive period. In the Ligurian Sea, fertile colonies from June to September (Boero & Fresi 1986); in Salento waters (this study) in May. Distribution. Endemic to Mediterranean (Picard 1955 as A. pluma; Svoboda 1979; Boero & Fresi 1986; Morri et al. 1991; Svoboda & Cornelius 1991; Bianchi et al. 1993 b; Medel & L��pez-Gonz��lez 1996; Piraino et al. 1999; Bouillon et al. 2004; Gravili et al. 2008 a; Soto ��ngel & Pe��a Cantero 2013). Records in Salento. Moderately frequent at Otranto (Gravili 2006; Gravili et al. 2008 a). Remarks. This species has a method of vegetative propagation peculiar among known species of the genus; hooked terminal portions of cormoids become fastened around the leaves of adjacent plants (von Schenck 1963). Like Aglaophenia tubiformis this species always harbours, in all endodermal tissues, the symbiotic zooxanthella Symbiodinium microadriaticum in densities similar to those reported in A. tubiformis (for more details see Svoboda & Cornelius 1991). References: M��ller-Cal�� and Kr��ger (1913) as A. helleri; Stechow (1919) as A. adriatica; Broch (1933) as A. pluma f. gracillima, in part; Riedl (1959), Von Schenck (1963, 1965); Relini et al. (1977) and Repetto et al. (1977) both as A. pluma; Balduzzi et al. (1979), Svoboda (1979), Boero (1981 a, b), Fresi et al. (1982), Boero et al. (1985), Boero & Fresi (1986), Gili (1986), Roca (1986), Garc��a-Rubies (1987), Roca (1987), Piraino & Morri (1990), Hughes et al. (1991), Morri et al. (1991), Roca et al. (1991), Svoboda & Cornelius (1991), Garc��a-Raso et al. (1992), Bianchi et al. (1993 b), Medel & L��pez-Gonz��lez (1996), Piraino et al. (1999), Bouillon et al. (2004), Gravili (2006), Gravili et al. (2008 a), Giovannetti et al. (2010), Moura (2011)., Published as part of Gravili, Cinzia, Vito, Doris De, Camillo, Cristina Gioia Di, Martell, Luis, Piraino, Stefano & Boero, Ferdinando, 2015, The non-Siphonophoran Hydrozoa (Cnidaria) of Salento, Italy with notes on their life-cycles: an illustrated guide, pp. 1-187 in Zootaxa 3908 (1) on pages 75-76, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.3908.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/242729, {"references":["Von Schenck, D. A. (1965) Aglaophenia harpago, a new species of the Plumulariidae (Hydroidea). Pubblicazioni della Stazione Zoologica di Napoli, 34 (3), 211 - 215.","Svoboda, A. & Cornelius, P. F. S. (1991) The European and Mediterranean species of Aglaophenia (Cnidaria: Hydrozoa). Zoologische Verhandelingen Leiden, 274, 1 - 72.","Svoboda, A. (1979) Beitrag zur Okologie, Biometrie und Systematik der Mediterranen Aglaophenia Arten (Hydroidea). Zoologische Verhandelingen Leiden, 167, 1 - 114.","Boero, F. & Fresi, E. (1986) Zonation and evolution of a Rocky bottom hydroid community. Marine Ecology, 7 (2), 123 - 150. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1111 / j. 1439 - 0485.1986. tb 00152. x","Giovannetti, E., Montefalcone, M., Morri, C., Bianchi, C. N. & Albertelli, G. (2010) Early warning response of Posidonia oceanica epiphyte community to environmental alterations (Ligurian Sea, NW Mediterranean). Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60 (7), 1031 - 1039. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1016 / j. marpolbul. 2010.01.024","Picard, J. (1955) Nouvelles recherches sur les hydromeduses des Herbiers mediterraneens de Posidonies. Recueil des Travaux de la Station Marine D'Endoume, 15 (Bulleton 9), 59 - 71.","Morri, C., Bavestrello, G. & Bianchi, C. N. (1991) Faunal and ecological notes on some benthic cnidarian species from the Tuscan Archipelago and eastern Ligurian Sea (western Mediterranean). Bollettino dei Musei e degli Istituti Biologici dell'Universita di Genova, 54 - 55, 27 - 47.","Bianchi, C. N., Ceppodomo, I., Niccolai, I., Aliani, S., De Ranieri, S., Abbiati, M., Dell'amico F. & Morri, C. (1993 b) Benthos dei Mari Toscani. II: Isola d'Elba-Montecristo (Crociera Enea 1986). In: Ferretti, O., Immordillo, F. & Damiani, V. (Eds.), Archipelago Toscano. Studio oceanografico, sedimentologico, geochimico e biologico. ENEA, Roma, Serie Studi Ambientali, pp. 291 - 315.","Medel, M. D. & Lopez-Gonzalez, P. J. (1996) Updated catalogue of the Hydrozoans from the Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands with remarks on zoogeography and affinities. Scientia Marina, 60 (1), 183 - 209.","Piraino, S., Brandini, E., Denitto, F., Esposito, L. & Avian, M. (1999) La diversita degli Cnidari nella riserva marina di Ustica. Biologia Marina Mediterranea, 6 (1), 272 - 274.","Gravili, C., Boero, F. & Licandro, P. (2008 a) Hydrozoa. Biologia Marina Mediterranea, 15 (Supplement), 71 - 91.","Soto Angel, J. J. & Pena Cantero, A. L. (2013) Shallow-water benthic hydroids from the Maltese Islands (Central Mediterranean). Marine Ecology, 34 (s 1), 177 - 196. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1111 / maec. 12035","Von Schenck, D. A. (1963) Specialisation de la reproduction sexuelle de quelques hydroides vivants dans la Posidonia. Pubblicazioni della Stazione Zoologica di Napoli, 32 (supplement), 117 - 122.","Muller-Cale, K. & Kruger, E. (1913) Einige biologische Beobachtungen uber die Entwicklung von Aglaophenia helleri, Aglaophenia pluma und Sertularella polyzonias. Mittheilungen aus der Zoologischen Station zu Neapel, 21 (2), 41 - 50.","Stechow, E. (1919) Zur Kenntnis der Hydroidenfauna des Mittelmeeres, Amerikas und anderer Gebiete, nebst Angaben uber einige Kirchenpauersche Typen von Plumulariden. Zoologische Jahrbucher, Abeilung fur Systematik, 42 (1), 1 - 172.","Broch, H. (1933) Zur kenntnis der Adriatischen fauna Von Split. Skrifter Norske Videnskaps-Akademi i Oslo. Matematisknaturvidenskapelig klasse, 4, 1 - 115.","Riedl, R. (1959) Die Hydroiden des Golfes von Neapel und ihr Anteil an der Fauna unterseeischen Hohlen. In: Ergebnisse der osterreichischen Tyrrhenia-Expedition 1952, Teil xvi. Pubblicazioni della Stazione Zoologica di Napoli, 30 (supplement), pp. 591 - 755.","Relini Orsi, L., Zotti, A. & Relini, G. (1977) Epifauna sessile di Posidonia oceanica in una prateria profonda del Mar Ligure. Atti del IX Congresso della Societa Italiana di Biologia Marina, Lacco Ameno d'Ischia, Napoli, 19 - 22 Maggio 1977, pp. 399 - 413.","Repetto, L., Montanari, M. & Martini, F. (1977) Popolamenti di substrati artificiali posti su un fondo a coralligeno ed in una prateria di Posidonia. V: Idroidi. Atti del IX Congresso della Societa Italiana di Biologia Marina, Lacco Ameno d'Ischia, Napoli, 19 - 22 Maggio 1977, 415 - 425.","Balduzzi, A., Belloni, S., Boero, F., Pessani, D. & Pronzato, R. (1979) I popolamenti bentonici. In: Andreoli, M. G., Loppel, S.","Boero, F. (1981 a) Systematics and ecology of the hydroid population of two Posidonia oceanica meadows. Pubblicazioni della Stazione zoologica di Napoli, 2 (3), 181 - 197. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1111 / j. 1439 - 0485.1981. tb 00093. x","Boero, F. (1981 b) Bathimetric distribution of the epifauna of a Posidonia meadow of the Isle of Ischia (Naples): Hydroids. Rapports et Proces-Verbaux des Reunions Commision Internationale pour l'Exploration Scientifique de la Mer Mediterranee, Monaco, 27 (2), 197 - 198.","Fresi, E., Chimenz, C. & Marchio, G. (1982) Zonazione di Briozoi ed Idroidi epifiti in una prateria di Posidonia oceanica (L.) Delile. Naturalista siciliano, S. IV, VI (Supplement), 3, 499 - 508.","Roca, I. (1986) Estudio de los Cnidarios Bentonicos de las aguas costeras de Mallorca. Tesis, Universitat de les illes Balears, Facultat de Ciencies, Palma de Mallorca, 32 pp.","Garcia-Rubies, A. (1987) Distribution of epiphytic hydroids on Posidonia sea grass. In: Bouillon, J., Boero, F., Cicogna, F. & Cornelius, P. F. S. (Eds.), Modern trends in the Systematics, Ecology and Evolution of Hydroids and Hydromedusae. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp. 143 - 155. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1017 / s 0025315400052255","Piraino, S. & Morri, C. (1990) Zonation and ecology of epiphytic hydroids in a Mediterranean coastal lagoon: the \" Stagnone of Marsala \" (Northwest Sicily). Pubblicazioni della Stazione Zoologica di Napoli, I. Marine Ecology, 11 (1), 43 - 60. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1111 / j. 1439 - 0485.1990. tb 00227. x","Roca, I., Moreno, I. & Barcelo, R. (1991) Distribucion espacial y temporal de los hidroideos de Posidonia oceanica (L.) Delile en una predera del Illot del Sec (Bahia de Palma, Baleares). Boletin del Instituto espanol de Oceanografia, 7 (1), 67 - 74.","Garcia-Raso, J. E., Luque, A. A., Templado, J., Salas, C., Hergueta, E., Moreno, D. & Calvo, M. (1992) Fauna y Flora Marinas del Parque Natural de Cabo de Gata-Nijar. Universidad de Malaga, Universidad Autonoma de Madrid y Museo Nacional de Ciencias Natuirales, Madrid, 288 pp.","Moura, C. F. J. (2011) Systematics and evolution of coastal and deep-water Hydrozoa from the NE Atlantic. PhD Thesis, Universidade de Aveiro, 340 pp."]}