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Although the first discovery of a human fossil in the Sima de los Huesos took place in 1976, systematic excavations did not begin there until 1984. Since then, this site has been continuously excavated in month-long camps. The site is dated by different radiometric techniques to between 430,000 and 300,000 years ago. Until the 2023 campaign, just over 7000 human fossils have been recovered, constituting the largest collection of fossils prior to Homo sapiens ever discovered. The fossils correspond to a minimum of 29 individuals of both sexes and different ages at death, from preadolescents to a specimen of advanced age. Comparative anatomy and ancient DNA studies both suggest that this is a population closely related to Homo neanderthalensis. The great variety and extraordinary quality of the fossils recovered have allowed us to carry out a series of investigations that have greatly increased our knowledge about the evolution of Homo in the Middle Pleistocene. Among the most important discoveries, it has been possible to establish body size and proportions, the confirmation that the origin of the accumulation of human fossils was of an anthropic nature, that those past humans took care of disabled individuals and who were capable of having an oral language almost as complex and efficient as that of our own species., MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033/FEDER, Universidad de Alcalá, MCIN/AEI /10.13039/501100011033, European Union's Horizon 2020, Depto. de Geodinámica, Estratigrafía y Paleontología, Fac. de Ciencias Geológicas, TRUE, pub

The postcranial skeleton of fossil hominins is crucial for reconstructing the processes that occurred between the time of death and the recovery of the bones. Thousands of postcranial skeletal fragments from at least 29 hominin individuals have been recovered from the Sima de los Huesos Middle Pleistocene site in Spain. This study's primary objective is to address the main taphonomic features of the postcranial remains from the Sima de los Huesos sample, including antemortem, perimortem, and postmortem skeletal disturbances. We present an updated assessment of the bone surface modification analysis, the fracture pattern analysis, and the skeletal part representation to facilitate interpretation of the biostratinomic and fossil-diagenetic processes in this large paleoanthropological collection. We conclude that carnivores (probably bears) had limited access to the hominin bones and complete bodies were probably placed in the site., Junta de Castilla y León, Atapuerca Foundation, European Research Council, Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion, Fondo Social Europeo, Agencia Estatal de Investigación, Depto. de Geodinámica, Estratigrafía y Paleontología, Fac. de Ciencias Geológicas, TRUE, pub

The Sima de los Huesos (SH) hominin assemblage is composed of thousands of fossil fragments, including pieces of crania and mandibles. The main objective of this work is to address the main taphonomic features of the cranial and mandibular remains from the SH sample, including antemortem, perimortem, and postmortem skeletal disturbances. We present an updated assessment of healed cranial trauma, first described in 1997 and now including new skulls. In addition, this study reviews the perimortem fractures in relation to their location and features of the affected individuals. Finally, this paper deals with the modifications affecting the cranial sample from the SH at the postmortem stage, including physical and biological postdepositional modifications. The SH collection provides a unique opportunity for conducting a complete forensic-taphonomic study on a Middle Pleistocene population., Unión Europea. Horizonte 2020, Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (MICINN)/FEDER, CaixaBank-Fundación Atapuerca, Junta de Castilla y León, Depto. de Geodinámica, Estratigrafía y Paleontología, Fac. de Ciencias Geológicas, TRUE, pub

After 34 years of research and findings in the Middle Pleistocene site of the Sima de los Huesos (SH) of the Sierra de Atapuerca (Burgos, Spain), we present an update of the estimation of the number of individuals (ENI) identified in the SH hominin assemblage. The last ENI, published in 2004, was 28. Although the number of specimens recovered has almost doubled since then and more complete information is now available, this new analysis suggests that the ENI is 29. Some individuals are still represented by only one or a few teeth and the upper and lower jaws of various individuals have not been completed. We suggest that the amateur cavers, who accessed the SH site for years looking for bear fossils, destroyed a significant number of hominin fossils. Despite this, we have a good picture of the group of hominins represented in the SH assemblage. Because complete corpses were accumulated in SH and it is a closed cavity, it is expected that a significant number of hominin fossils remains to be discovered. According to the previous estimates, the representation of females is greater than that of males. However, the observed sex ratio is not significantly different from the 1:1 ratio. With the exception of the possible presence of a child individual, most of the remaining 28 individuals are teenagers or young adults (24/28 = 0.857). The ages of death of SH hominins appear to conform to a catastrophic profile., Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (MICINN), Consejería de Cultura y Turismo of the Junta de Castilla y León, Fundación Atapuerca, Leakey Foundation, Depto. de Geodinámica, Estratigrafía y Paleontología, Fac. de Ciencias Geológicas, TRUE, pub

Previous studies of upper first molar (M1) crown shape have shown significant differences between Homo sapiens and Homo neanderthalensis that were already present in the European Middle Pleistocene populations, including the large dental sample from atapuerca-Sima de los Huesos (SH). analysis of other M1 features such as the total crown base area, cusp proportions, cusp angles and occlusal polygon have confirmed the differences between both lineages, becoming a useful tool for the taxonomic assignment of isolated teeth from Late Pleistocene sites. However, until now the pattern of expression of these variables has not been known for the SH sample. This fossil sample, the largest collection from the European Middle Pleistocene, is generally interpreted as being from the direct ancestors of Neanderthals, and thus is a reference sample for assessing the origin of the Neanderthal morphologies. Surprisingly, our study reveals that SH M1s present a unique mosaic of H. neanderthalensis and H. sapiens features. Regarding the cusp angles and the relative occlusal polygon area, SH matches the H. neanderthalensis pattern. However, regarding the total crown base area and relative cusps size, SH M1s are similar to H. sapiens, with a small crown area, a strong hypocone reduction and a protocone enlargement, although the protocone expansion in SH is significantly larger than in any other group studied. The SH dental sample calls into question the uniqueness of some so-called modern traits. Our study also sounds a note of caution on the use of M1 occlusal morphology for the alpha taxonomy of isolated M1s.

“Se proyectará mucha luz sobre el origen del hombre y su historia”. Darwin eludió el problema de pronunciarse sobre nosotros mismos, temía ser víctima del antropocentrismo feroz. Esa cita de Darwin, la única referida al Homo sapiens en su obra "El Origen de las Especies", sirve a la autora para estudiar el conocimiento del autor sobre los fósiles humanos y como lo enmarco dentro de la evolución, que fue situarlo en el lugar que le correspondía: entre el resto de los seres vivos, sometido a sus mismas normas y leyes de existencia y cambio

A unique assemblage of 28 hominin individuals, found in Sima de los Huesos in the Sierra de Atapuerca in Spain, has recently been dated to approximately 430,000 years ago. An interesting question is how these Middle Pleistocene hominins were related to those who lived in the Late Pleistocene epoch, in particular to Neanderthals in western Eurasia and to Denisovans, a sister group of Neanderthals so far known only from southern Siberia. While the Sima de los Huesos hominins share some derived morphological features with Neanderthals, the mitochondrial genome retrieved from one individual from Sima de los Huesos is more closely related to the mitochondrial DNA of Denisovans than to that of Neanderthals. However, since the mitochondrial DNA does not reveal the full picture of relationships among populations, we have investigated DNA preservation in several individuals found at Sima de los Huesos. Here we recover nuclear DNA sequences from two specimens, which show that the Sima de los Huesos hominins were related to Neanderthals rather than to Denisovans, indicating that the population divergence between Neanderthals and Denisovans predates 430,000 years ago. A mitochondrial DNA recovered from one of the specimens shares the previously described relationship to Denisovan mitochondrial DNAs, suggesting, among other possibilities, that the mitochondrial DNA gene pool of Neanderthals turned over later in their history., Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (MINECO), Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (MICINN), Max Planck Society, Junta de Castilla y León/Fundación Atapuerca, Depto. de Geodinámica, Estratigrafía y Paleontología, Fac. de Ciencias Geológicas, TRUE, pub

Complete radii in the fossil record preceding recent humans and Neandertals are very scarce. Here we introduce the radial remains recovered from the Sima de los Huesos (SH) site in the Sierra de Atapuerca between 1976 and 2011 and which have been dated in excess of 430 ky (thousands of years) ago. The sample comprises 89 specimens, 49 of which are attributed to adults representing a minimum of seven individuals. All elements are described anatomically and metrically, and compared with other fossil hominins and recent humans in order to examine the phylogenetic polarity of certain radial features. Radial remains from SH have some traits that differentiate them from those of recent humans and make them more similar to Neandertals, including strongly curved shafts, anteroposterior expanded radial heads and both absolutely and relatively long necks. In contrast, the SH sample differs from Neandertals in showing a high overall gracility as well as a high frequency (80%) of an anteriorly oriented radial tuberosity. Thus, like the cranial and dental remains from the SH site, characteristic Neandertal radial morphology is not present fully in the SH radii. We also analyzed the cross-sectional properties of the SH radial sample at two different levels: mid-shaft and at the midpoint of the neck length. When standardized by shaft length, no difference in the mid-shaft cross-sectional properties were found between the SH hominins, Neandertals and recent humans. Nevertheless, due to their long neck length, the SH hominins show a higher lever efficiency than either Neandertals or recent humans. Functionally, the SH radial morphology is consistent with more efficient pronation-supination and flexion-extension movements. The particular trait composition in the SH sample and Neandertals resembles more closely morphology evident in recent human males., Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (MINECO), Junta de Castilla y León, European Social Fund, Gobierno Vasco/Eusko Jaurlaritza, Ramon y Cajal Program, Depto. de Geodinámica, Estratigrafía y Paleontología, Fac. de Ciencias Geológicas, TRUE, pub

Nous présentons l’étude paléopathologique d’une rotule gauche (ATD6-56), appartenantà l’espèce Homo antecessor du Pléistocène inférieur (Atapuerca-Gran Dolina, Espagne).La morphologie anormale observée sur le bord inférieur de la rotule est une excrois-sance osseuse (ostéophyte). Les techniques macroscopiques et microscopiques incluantla microtomographie et le stéréomicroscope à zoom sont utilisées pour décrire la lésion.Extérieurement, l’ostéophyte a une texture douce et poreuse. La limite entre l’ostéophyteplus radiotransparent et l’os normal peut être identifiée sur les images de rayons X. Nous, We present the palaeopathological study of a left patella (ATD6-56) belonging to theEarly Pleistocene species Homo antecessor (Atapuerca-Gran Dolina, Spain). The abnormalmorphology observed in the inferior margin of the patella is an osseous overgrowth (osteo-phyte). Macroscopic and microscopic techniques, including microtomography and zoomstereomicroscope, were used to describe the lesion. Externally, the osteophyte has a smoothand porous texture; the boundary between the more radiolucent osteophyte and the nor-mal bone can be identified in X-ray images. We suggest that the observed signs could besecondary to a local trauma. The lesion would have involved either the bone or related softtissues of the left limb, possibly affecting the stability of the joint. Consequently, the indi-vidual’s knee would have suffered an abnormal mechanical load that could have eventuallytriggered osteoarthritic changes. This is also supported by the lack of changes observed inthe associated right patella (ATD6-22)., Depto. de Geodinámica, Estratigrafía y Paleontología, Fac. de Ciencias Geológicas, TRUE, pub

Seventeen Middle Pleistocene crania from the Sima de los Huesos site (Atapuerca, Spain) are analyzed, including seven new specimens. This sample makes it possible to thoroughly characterize a Middle Pleistocene hominin paleodeme and to address hypotheses about the origin and evolution of the Neandertals. Using a variety of techniques, the hominin-bearing layer could be reassigned to a period around 430,000 years ago. The sample shows a consistent morphological pattern with derived Neandertal features present in the face and anterior vault, many of which are related to the masticatory apparatus. This suggests that facial modification was the first step in the evolution of the Neandertal lineage, pointing to a mosaic pattern of evolution, with different anatomical and functional modules evolving at different rates., Unión Europea. FP7, Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (MICINN), Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (MINECO), Comunidad de Madrid, Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte (MECD), Junta de Castilla y León, Binghamton University (SUNY), Museo Americano de Historia Natural, Fundación Atapuerca, Ann and Gordon Getty Foundation, Taiwan ROC MOST, Depto. de Geodinámica, Estratigrafía y Paleontología, Fac. de Ciencias Geológicas, TRUE, pub

Excavations of a complex of caves in the Sierra de Atapuerca in northern Spain have unearthed hominin fossils that range in age from the early Pleistocene to the Holocene1. One of these sites, the ‘Sima de los Huesos’ (‘pit of bones’), has yielded the world’s largest assemblage of Middle Pleistocene hominin fossils2,3, onsisting of at least 28 individuals4 dated to over 300,000 years ago5. The skeletal remains share a number of morphological features with fossils classifieds Homo heidelbergensis and also display distinct neanderthalderived traits6–8. Here we determine an almost complete mitochondrial genome sequence of a hominin from Sima de los Huesos and show that it is closely related to the lineage leading to mitochondrial genomes of enisovans 9,10, an eastern Eurasian sister group to Neanderthals. Our results pave the way for DNA research on hominins from the Middle Pleistocene., Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (MICINN), Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (MINECO), Depto. de Geodinámica, Estratigrafía y Paleontología, Fac. de Ciencias Geológicas, TRUE, pub

The Sima de los Huesos (SH) site is the largest accumulation of human remains from the Middle Pleistocene known to date. Studies in the last two decades have proposed different hypotheses to explain carnivore activity in the SH human sample. This study provides new data in order to test these different interpretations, and therefore to understand the role of the carnivores in site formation at SH. Carnivores are usually not the origin of large accumulations of hominin fossils in the Eurasian record. The results show that marks of carnivore activity in the SH sample appear very infrequently, which we interpret as indicating that carnivore activity was very sporadic at the site. This is in stark contrast with previous studies. The comparison of bone modification patterns at SH to actualistic carnivore data allows us to suggest that bears were likely to have been the carnivore responsible for the modification observed on both human and bear fossils, Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (MINECO), Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación, Depto. de Geodinámica, Estratigrafía y Paleontología, Fac. de Ciencias Geológicas, TRUE, pub

The existence of calcanei in the fossil record prior to modern humans and Neandertals is very scarce. This skeletal element is fundamental to understanding the evolution of the morphology of the foot in human evolution. Here we present and metrically and comparatively describe 29 calcaneus remains from the Middle Pleistocene site of Sima de los Huesos (SH) (Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos, Spain). These calcanei belong to 15 individuals (nine adults, two adolescents and four immature individuals). The metric and morphological differences in the calcanei among Middle and Late Pleistocene hominins tend to be subtle. However, the calcanei from SH are broad and robust with large articular surfaces and most significantly, exhibit a very projected sustentaculum tali. A biomechanical and phylogenetic interpretation is proffered to explain the observed morphology of these calcanei. It has been possible to propose tentative sex assignments for the SH calcanei based on size, using methods similar to those used to establish sex from the talus bones from SH. The estimation of stature based on the calcaneus provides a mean of 175.3 cm for males and 160.6 for females, which is similar to that obtained using other skeletal parts from the site. In sum, the SH calcanei are robust with a proportionally long tubercle and a projected sustentaculum tali, which are traits shared by Neandertals., Unión Europea. FP7, Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (MICINN), Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (MINECO), Generalitat de Catalunya, Fundación Atapuerca, Junta de Castilla y León, Depto. de Geodinámica, Estratigrafía y Paleontología, Fac. de Ciencias Geológicas, TRUE, pub

The application of microtomography (mCT) to dental morphological studies has unveileda new source of palaeobiological information, particularly in the analysis of the internalstructures of teeth. In this study, we assess the expression of talonid crests at the enameland dentine surfaces in lower permanent and second deciduous molars (M2and dm2) ofH. sapiens, H. neanderthalensis and Atapuerca-Sima de los Huesos (SH) hominins. In modernhumans, talonid crests are described exclusively in the deciduous teeth (Korenhof, 1982)and interpreted as a primitive mammalian remnant of the talonid attachment to the trigo-nid. Here we report for the first time the expression of talonid crests of deciduous andpermanent molars in H. sapiens, H. neanderthalensis and Middle Pleistocene hominins. Wediscuss possible evolutionary interpretations and suggest the importance of recording thisfeature in future studies., éL’application de la microtomographie (mCT) aux études de morphologie dentaire a dévoiléune nouvelle source d’information paléobiologique, particulièrement dans l’analyse desstructures internes des dents. Dans cette étude, nous évaluons l’expression des crêtes dutalonide à la surface de l’émail et de la dentine de molaires inférieures et caduques (M2etdm2) de H. sapiens, H. neanderthalensis et d’Homininés d’Atapuerca-Sima de los Huevos (SH).Chez les humains modernes, les crêtes du talonide sont exclusivement décrites dans lecas des dents caduques (Korenhof, 1982) et interprétées comme un vestige mammalienprimitif de l’attache du talonide au trigonide. Ici, nous présentons pour la première foisl’expression de crêtes du talonide de molaires temporaires et permanentes chez H. sapiens,H. neanderthalensis et chez des Homininés du Pléistocène moyen. Nous discutons les inter-prétations évolutionnistes possibles et proposons de prendre en compte cet élément dansles futures études., Depto. de Geodinámica, Estratigrafía y Paleontología, Fac. de Ciencias Geológicas, TRUE, pub

[ES] El siguiente trabajo aborda el estudio de las patologías dentales presentes en los individuos hallados en el claustro del convento de San Pablo (Burgos), perteneciente a los siglos XIV-XVI. La muestra consiste en un total de 71 individuos de ambos sexos, que abarcan todos los grupos de edad. Se han registrado la presencia o ausencia de diferentes patologías orales: caries, cálculo, enfermedad periodontal, abscesos y desgaste dental. Para el registro se ha elaborado una base de datos en la que se ha anotado el tipo y la gravedad de cada enfermedad. Se establecieron cuatro grupos diferentes, basados en la erupción de los molares permanentes, para determinar diferentes estatus en el desarrollo., [EUS] Ondorengo lana San Pabloko (Burgos) komentuaren klaustroan, XIV. eta XVI. mendeen artekoa, aurkitutako gizabanakoen ahozko patologien azterketari ekiten dio. Lagina bi sexuetako 71 gizabanakoez osatuta dago, adin guztiak hartzen dituenak. Ahozko patologia desberdinen egotea edo ez egoteari buruzko informazioa bildu zen: txantxarra, hortzetako lertzoa, gaixotasun periodontala, abzesuak eta hortz-higadura. Honetarako datu base bat egin zen eta bertan gaixotasun bakoitzaren mota eta larritasuna jaso ziren. Gizabanakoak lau adin talde desberdinetan sailkatu ziren, behin betiko haginen irtetearen arabera definitutakoak, gaixotasun bakoitzaren garapenaren egoera ezartzeko., [EN] This paper shows a detailed study of oral pathologies in a sample from the medieval monastery of San Pablo (Burgos, Spain). Presence or absence and type of dental caries, calculus, periodontal disease, abscesses and dental wear have been recorded in 71 individuals of both sexes and all groups of ages-at-death. To do that, an especial database was created, in which the type and severity of each disease were recorded. Four different age groups were established based on permanent molar eruption, which allow us to determine different developmental status.

Here we present and describe comparatively 25 talus bones from the Middle Pleistocene site of the Sima de los Huesos (SH) (Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos, Spain). These tali belong to 14 individuals (11 adult and three immature). Although variation among Middle and Late Pleistocene tali tends to be subtle, this study has identified unique morphological characteristics of the SH tali. They are vertically shorter than those of Late Pleistocene Homo sapiens, and show a shorter head and a broader lateral malleolar facet than all of the samples. Moreover, a few shared characters with Neanderthals are consistent with the hypothesis that the SH population and Neanderthals are sister groups. These shared characters are a broad lateral malleolar facet, a trochlear height intermediate between modern humans and Late Pleistocene H. sapiens, and a short middle calcaneal facet. It has been possible to propose sex assignment for the SH tali based on their size. Stature estimates based on these fossils give a mean stature of 174.4 cm for males and 161.9 cm for females, similar to that obtained based on the long bones from this same site., Unión Europea. FP7, Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (MINECO), Ministerio de Educación, Fundación Ancestros, Junta de Castilla y León, Depto. de Geodinámica, Estratigrafía y Paleontología, Fac. de Ciencias Geológicas, TRUE, pub

The present study presents new data on the abilities of Homo heidelbergensis to produce and perceive the sounds emitted during modern human spoken language. The pattern of sound power transmission was studied through the outer and middle ears in five individuals from the Sima de los Huesos, four chimpanzees and four modern humans. The results were then used to calculate the occupied bandwidth of the outer and middle ears, an important variable related with communicative capacities. The results demonstrate that the Atapuerca SH hominins were similar to modern humans in this aspect, falling within the lower half of the range of variation, and clearly distinct from chimpanzees. Specifically, the Atapuerca SH hominins show a bandwidth that is slightly displaced and considerably extended to encompass the frequencies that contain relevant acoustic information in human speech, permitting the transmission of a larger amount of information with fewer errors. At the same time, the presence of a complete cervical segment of the spinal column associated with Cranium 5 from the Sima de los Huesos Middle Pleistocene site (Sierra de Atapuerca, Spain) makes it possible to estimate the vocal tract proportions in H. heidelbergensis for the first time. The results demonstrate that it is similar to the reconstructed vocal tract in the La Ferrassie 1 Neandertal individual, which has been suggested to have been capable of producing the full range of sounds emitted during modern human spoken language. These results in the Atapuerca (SH) hominins are consistent with other recent suggestions for an ancient origin for human speech capacity., Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación, Junta de Castilla y León, Depto. de Geodinámica, Estratigrafía y Paleontología, Fac. de Ciencias Geológicas, TRUE, pub

Systematic excavations at the site of the Sima de los Huesos (SH) in the Sierra de Atapuerca (Burgos, Spain) have allowed us to reconstruct 27 complete long bones of the human species Homo heidelbergensis. The SH sample is used here, together with a sample of 39 complete Homo neanderthalensis long bones and 17 complete early Homo sapiens (Skhul/Qafzeh) long bones, to compare the stature of these three different human species. Stature is estimated for each bone using race- and sex-independent regression formulae, yielding an average stature for each bone within each taxon. The mean length of each long bone from SH is significantly greater (p < 0.05) than the corresponding mean values in the Neandertal sample. The stature has been calculated for male and female specimens separately, averaging both means to calculate a general mean. This general mean stature for the entire sample of long bones is 163.6 cm for the SH hominins, 160.6 cm for Neandertals and 177.4 cm for early modern humans. Despite some overlap in the ranges of variation, all mean values in the SH sample (whether considering isolated bones, the upper or lower limb, males or females or more complete individuals) are larger than those of Neandertals. Given the strong relationship between long bone length and stature, we conclude that SH hominins represent a slightly taller population or species than the Neandertals. However, compared with living European Mediterranean populations, neither the Sima de los Huesos hominins nor the Neandertals should be considered ‘short’ people. In fact, the average stature within the genus Homo seems to have changed little over the course of the last two million years, since the appearance of Homo ergaster in East Africa. It is only with the emergence of H. sapiens, whose earliest representatives were ‘very tall’, that a significant increase in stature can be documented., Depto. de Geodinámica, Estratigrafía y Paleontología, Fac. de Ciencias Geológicas, TRUE, pub

Systematic excavations carried out since 1989 at Bolomor Cave have led to the recovery of four Pleistocene human fossil remains, consisting of a fibular fragment, two isolated teeth, and a nearly complete adult parietal bone. All of these specimens date to the late Middle and early Late Pleistocene (MIS 7-5e). The fibular fragment shows thick cortical bone, an archaic feature found in non-modern (i.e. non-Homo sapiens) members of the genus Homo. Among the dental remains, the lack of a midtrigonid crest in the M1 represents a departure from the morphology reported for the majority of Neandertal specimens, while the large dimensions and pronounced shoveling of the marginal ridges in the C1 are similar to other European Middle and late Pleistocene fossils. The parietal bone is very thick, with dimensions that generally fall above Neandertal fossils and resemble more closely the Middle Pleistocene Atapuerca (SH) adult specimens. Based on the presence of archaic features, all the fossils from Bolomor are attributed to the Neandertal evolutionary lineage., Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (MICINN), Depto. de Geodinámica, Estratigrafía y Paleontología, Fac. de Ciencias Geológicas, TRUE, pub

Systematic excavations carried out since 1989 at Bolomor Cave have led to the recovery of four Pleistocene human fossil remains, consisting of a fibular fragment, two isolated teeth, and a nearly complete adult parietal bone. All of these specimens date to the late Middle and early Late Pleistocene (MIS 7-5e). The fibular fragment shows thick cortical bone, an archaic feature found in non-modern (i.e. non-Homo sapiens) members of the genus Homo. Among the dental remains, the lack of a midtrigonid crest in the M1 represents a departure from the morphology reported for the majority of Neandertal specimens, while the large dimensions and pronounced shoveling of the marginal ridges in the C1 are similar to other European Middle and late Pleistocene fossils. The parietal bone is very thick, with dimensions that generally fall above Neandertal fossils and resemble more closely the Middle Pleistocene Atapuerca (SH) adult specimens. Based on the presence of archaic features, all the fossils from Bolomor are attributed to the Neandertal evolutionary lineage.

Background The authors report the morphological and neuroimaging findings of an immature human fossil (Cranium 14) diagnosed with left lambdoid synostosis. Discussion The skull was recovered at the Sima de los Huesos site in Atapuerca (Burgos, Spain). Since the human fossil remains from this site have been dated to a minimum age of 530,000 years, this skull represents the earliest evidence of craniosynostosis occurring in a hominid. A brief historical review of craniosynostosis and cranial deformation is provided., Depto. de Geodinámica, Estratigrafía y Paleontología, Fac. de Ciencias Geológicas, TRUE, pub

One of the most influential paleoanthropological approaches to the question of language origins has been the attempt to reconstruct the supralaryngeal vocal tract (SVT) in fossil humans. In particular, the low placement of the larynx was considered to be a uniquely human feature and was interpreted as a specific adaptation to produce human speech. Nevertheless, based on the anatomy of the basicranium and the hyoid bone, various researchers reached different conclusions regarding the placement of the larynx in human fossils, especially in Neandertals. Further, the recent finding of a low placement of the larynx in chimpanzees, calls into question the basic premise on which much of this research has been based. To overcome this, we have proposed and developed a new line of research into the question of speech capabilities in fossil specimens which is focused not on the ability to produce the sounds of spoken language, but on the capacity to perceive them. The modern human auditory pattern is unique among primates in showing a relatively heightened sensitivity to the midrange frequencies between 2-4 kHz, a frequency range which coincides with that of spoken language. Our analysis shows that the preserved skeletal anatomy of the outer and middle ear in the Middle Pleistocene hominids from the site of the Sima de los Huesos is compatible with human-like auditory capacities, and is clearly different from chimpanzees in the midrange frequencies. These results strongly suggest that the anatomical structures which support the modern hum and pattern of intraspecific communication were already present in these human ancestors. Further, the presence of a common condition in both the modern human and Neandertal evolutionary lineages suggests this represents an ancient adaptation within the genus Homo., L’une des approches paléoanthropologiques de plus grande influence sur la question des origines du langage a été l’essai de reconstruction du conduit vocal supralaryngé (SVT) sur les fossiles humains. Notamment, le placement bas du larynx a longtemps été considéré comme un caractère propre à l’Homme et a été interprété comme une adaptation spécifique destinée à produire la parole humaine. Cependant, en se basant sur l’anatomie du basicrane et l’os hyoïde, plusieurs chercheurs ont atteint diverses conclusions sur le placement du larynx chez les fossiles humains, notamment chez les néandertaliens. De plus, les découvertes récentes d’un placement bas du larynx chez les chimpanzés, remet en question ces acquis sur lesquels beaucoup de cette recherche était basée. Afin de passer outre cette difficulté, nous avons proposé et développé une nouvelle ligne de recherche sur la question des capacités de parole chez les fossiles humains, basée non pas sur la capacité à produire les sons du langage articulé, mais sur la capacité à les percevoir. Le modèle auditif de l’Homme moderne est unique chez les Primates, car il montre une sensibilité relativement accentuée dans les fréquences moyennes entre 2–4 kHz, une tranche de fréquence qui coïncide avec le langage parlé. Notre analyse montre que l’anatomie préservée du squelette de l’oreille externe et moyenne chez les hominidés du Pléistocène moyen du site de la Sima de los Huesos est compatible avec les capacités auditives de l’homme, et est nettement différente de celles des chimpanzés dans les fréquences moyennes. Ces résultats suggèrent fortement que les structures anatomiques de communication intraspécifique qui sont présentes chez l’Homme moderne étaient déjà présentes chez ces ancêtres humains. De plus, la présence d’un caractère commun à la fois chez l’Homme moderne et dans les lignées évolutives des néandertaliens font penser qu’il s’agit là d’une adaptation ancienne chez le genre Homo., Ministerio de Ciencia y Tecnología, Depto. de Geodinámica, Estratigrafía y Paleontología, Fac. de Ciencias Geológicas, TRUE, pub

A fossil human femur of Homo heidelbergensis from the site of the Sima de los Huesos (Atapuerca, Spain) was reconstructed from two main proximal and distal portions and numerous smaller fragments from the diaphysis. The use of an evaporative process to separate the bone fragments during their restoration represents an innovative approach in restoring paleontological materials and the intervention has resulted in the reconstruction of a complete femur. To avoid excessive manipulation of the reconstructed femur, a mold (negative) and cast (positive) were made of the restored specimen. This case study provides general protocols which can be widely applied to the restoration of paleontological materials from the moment of their excavation until they are deposited in a research center., Un fossile de fémur humain de Homo heidelbergensis venant du site de La Sima de Los Huesos (Atapuerca, Espagne) a été reconstitué à partir des deux parties proximale et distale et de quelques petits fragments de diaphyse. L’utilisation d’un processus d’évaporation pour séparer les fragments durant leur restauration représente une approche novatrice en matière de restauration de matériel paléontologique et a permis la restitution d’un fémur complet. Pour éviter des manipulations excessives de ce fémur, il en a été fait un moulage et un tirage. À partir de cet exemple, il a pu être établi un protocole général qui peut être appliqué à la restauration de tout matériel paléontologique depuis son extraction jusqu’au laboratoire., Ministerio de Ciencia y Tecnología, Depto. de Geodinámica, Estratigrafía y Paleontología, Fac. de Ciencias Geológicas, TRUE, pub

We report here a previously undescribed human Middle Pleistocene immature specimen, Cranium 14, recovered at the Sima de los Huesos (SH) site (Atapuerca, Spain), that constitutes the oldest evidence in human evolution of a very rare pathology in our own species, lambdoid single suture craniosynostosis (SSC). Both the ecto- and endo-cranial deformities observed in this specimen are severe. All of the evidence points out that this severity implies that the SSC occurred before birth, and that facial asymmetries, as well as motor/cognitive disorders, were likely to be associated with this condition. The analysis of the present etiological data of this specimen lead us to consider that Cranium 14 is a case of isolated SSC, probably of traumatic origin. The existence of this pathological individual among the SH sample represents also a fact to take into account when referring to sociobiological behavior in Middle Pleistocene humans., Ministerio de Ciencia y Tecnologıía, Junta de Castilla y León and Fundación Atapuerca, Depto. de Geodinámica, Estratigrafía y Paleontología, Fac. de Ciencias Geológicas, TRUE, pub

This study describes and compares two hyoid bones from the middle Pleistocene site of the Sima de los Huesos in the Sierra de Atapuerca (Spain). The Atapuerca SH hyoids are humanlike in both their morphology and dimensions, and they clearly differ from the hyoid bones of chimpanzees and Australopithecus afarensis. Their comparison with the Neandertal specimens Kebara 2 and SDR-034 makes it possible to begin to approach the question of temporal variation and sexual dimorphism in this bone in fossil humans. The results presented here show that the degree of metric and anatomical variation in the fossil sample was similar in magnitude and kind to living humans. Modern hyoid morphology was present by at least 530 kya and appears to represent a shared derived feature of the modern human and Neandertal evolutionary lineages inherited from their last common ancestor., Depto. de Geodinámica, Estratigrafía y Paleontología, Fac. de Ciencias Geológicas, TRUE, pub

New Neandertal fossils from the Mousterian site of Cova Negra in the Valencia region of Spain are described, and a comprehensive study of the entire human fossil sample is provided. The new specimens significantly augment the sample of human remains from this site and make Cova Negra one of the richest human paleontological sites on the Iberian Peninsula. The new specimens include cranial and postcranial elements from immature individuals and provide an opportunity to study the ontogenetic appearance of adult Neandertal characteristics in this Pleistocene population. Children younger than 10 years of age constitute four of the seven minimum number of individuals in the sample, and this relative abundance of children at Cova Negra is similar that in to other Neandertal sites in Europe and southwest Asia. The recognition of diagnostic Neandertal features in several of the specimens, as well as their western European context and late Pleistocene age, suggests that all the human remains from Cova Negra represent Neandertals. The archaeological evidence from Cova Negra indicates sporadic, short-term occupations of the site, suggesting a high degree of mobility among Neandertals., Depto. de Geodinámica, Estratigrafía y Paleontología, Fac. de Ciencias Geológicas, TRUE, pub