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The role of the nuclear receptor TLX in hippocampal neurogenesis and cognition has just begun to be explored. In this study, we generated a transgenic mouse model that expresses TLX under the control of the promoter of nestin, a neural precursor marker. Transgenic TLX expression led to mice with enlarged brains with an elongated hippocampal dentate gyrus and increased numbers of newborn neurons. Specific expression of TLX in adult hippocampal dentate gyrus via lentiviral transduction increased the numbers of BrdU(+) cells and BrdU(+)NeuN(+) neurons. Furthermore, the neural precursor-specific expression of the TLX transgene substantially rescued the neurogenic defects of TLX-null mice. Consistent with increased neurogenesis in the hippocampus, the TLX transgenic mice exhibited enhanced cognition with increased learning and memory. These results suggest a strong association between hippocampal neurogenesis and cognition, as well as significant contributions of TLX to hippocampal neurogenesis, learning, and memory.

Although Wnt7a has been implicated in axon guidance and synapse formation, investigations of its role in the early steps of neurogenesis have just begun. We show here that Wnt7a is essential for neural stem cell self-renewal and neural progenitor cell cycle progression in adult mouse brains. Loss of Wnt7a expression dramatically reduced the neural stem cell population and increased the rate of cell cycle exit in neural progenitors in the hippocampal dentate gyrus of adult mice. Furthermore, Wnt7a is important for neuronal differentiation and maturation. Loss of Wnt7a expression led to a substantial decrease in the number of newborn neurons in the hippocampal dentate gyrus. Wnt7a(-/-) dentate granule neurons exhibited dramatically impaired dendritic development. Moreover, Wnt7a activated β-catenin and its downstream target genes to regulate neural stem cell proliferation and differentiation. Wnt7a stimulated neural stem cell proliferation by activating the β-catenin-cyclin D1 pathway and promoted neuronal differentiation and maturation by inducing the β-catenin-neurogenin 2 pathway. Thus, Wnt7a exercised critical control over multiple steps of neurogenesis by regulating genes involved in both cell cycle control and neuronal differentiation.

The field of regenerative medicine is rapidly gaining momentum as an increasing number of reports emerge concerning the induced conversions observed in cellular fate reprogramming. While in recent years, much attention has been focused on the conversion of fate-committed somatic cells to an embryonic-like or pluripotent state, there are still many limitations associated with the applications of induced pluripotent stem cell reprogramming, including relatively low reprogramming efficiency, the times required for the reprogramming event to take place, the epigenetic instability, and the tumorigenicity associated with the pluripotent state. On the other hand, lineage reprogramming involves the conversion from one mature cell type to another without undergoing conversion to an unstable intermediate. It provides an alternative approach in regenerative medicine that has a relatively lower risk of tumorigenesis and increased efficiency within specific cellular contexts. While lineage reprogramming provides exciting potential, there is still much to be assessed before this technology is ready to be applied in a clinical setting.

There are many biological processes occurring in nature with dynamic complexity: neurogenesis is one such process. The special topic of “microRNAs in Neural Stem Cells (NSCs) and Neurogenesis” in Frontiers in Neuroscience discussed diverse roles microRNAs (miRNA) play in neurogenesis through a series of review articles and original research articles. This editorial serves to highlight these appealing articles, which build a comprehensive story about the many different roles miRNA molecules play in NSCs and neurogenesis. Neurogenesis involves the generation of newborn neuronal cells from NSCs and progenitor cells in the mammalian brain. The main steps of neurogenesis include NSC self-renewal, neural progenitor cell proliferation, neuronal commitment, migration, maturation, and integration (Shi et al., 2010). Neurogenesis is highly active during development when new neurons are formed and integrated into the growing brain. Neurogenesis continues to occur in the brain throughout adulthood within two discrete adult neurogenic niches, the hippocampal dentate gyrus and the subventricular zone (Lois and Alvarez-Buylla, 1994; Eriksson et al., 1998). In recent years, much attention has been focused on the impact miRNAs have on the process of neurogenesis. miRNAs are single-stranded, non-coding molecules that typically range between 21 and 24 nucleotides in length. They are post-transcriptional regulators that are endogenously expressed and bind to complementary sequences of messenger RNA targets. miRNAs regulate multiple processes including: development, cell proliferation and differentiation, growth and neurogenesis (Ambros, 2004; Bartel, 2004). Though small in length, miRNAs control gene expression through targeting many downstream targets. In a recent review, miRNAs are introduced as an important player in the regulation of embryonic stem cells and neurogenesis (Kawahara et al., 2012). Emphasis is placed on components of miRNA biogenesis, such as Dicer, Drosha, DGCR8, Lin-28, and other related proteins involved in neurogenesis; some of which have been linked to cancer, fragile × syndrome, and nervous system disorders (Kawahara et al., 2012). The review written by Lang and Shi highlighted the dynamic roles that miRNAs play in multiple steps of neurogenesis including: NSC proliferation, self-renewal, neuronal differentiation, maturation, and dendritic spine morphogenesis (Lang and Shi, 2012). This review covered key miRNA regulators in neural development and adult neurogenesis. It summarized the role of miR-9, miR-124, miR-137, miR-184, and let-7 in NSC proliferation and differentiation, miR-125b and miR-128 in neuronal differentiation and maturation, and miR-132, miR-134, miR-138 in dendritic spine morphogenesis (Lang and Shi, 2012). Switching gears from neuronal differentiation, Barca-Mayo and Lu discussed miRNAs important for glial-lineage fate specification with an emphasis on the fine-tuning of oligodendrocyte development (Lu and Barca, 2012). The authors elaborated on the roles of miRNAs, particularly miR-219, miR-338, and miR-138, in regulating oligodendrocyte differentiation and maturation. Also highlighted in this article is a discussion concerning the potential use of miRNAs as disease biomarkers for nervous system diseases, such as multiple sclerosis, owing to a greater stability of miRNAs in comparison to messenger RNAs (Lu and Barca, 2012). As discussed by Schouten et al., miRNAs have been implicated in aging-associated cognitive decline, synapse formation, and the effects of circulating levels of steroid hormones (Schouten et al., 2012). Within this framework, the ability of newborn neurons to functionally integrate into hippocampal circuits could be partly attributed to the activity of miR-132. Furthermore, the authors gave a compelling account of miRNAs in adult hippocampal neurogenesis, along with their effects on target genes and the potential influence these interactions have on neural development disorders, such as Rett syndrome and autism. A discussion concerning neurogenesis would not be complete without taking a look at the epigenetic mechanisms regulating gene expression important for NSC maintenance and fate specification. In their review, Jobe et al. explored the ability of non-coding RNAs to “crosstalk” with other epigenetic mechanisms—namely DNA methylation and histone modification. The authors paid particular attention to the contributions of epigenetic mechanisms to NSC regulatory networks in adult neurogenesis (Jobe et al., 2012). Furthermore, this review raises a discussion concerning how neuronal activities, inflammation, stress, and diseases lead to changes in epigenetic states. While there are many tools offering a “straight-forward” approach to miRNA transcriptional profiling, such as miRNA arrays, PCR, and Northern blotting, functional studies on miRNA remain technically challenging (Akerblom et al., 2012). For instance, Dicer knockout studies suggest critical roles for miRNA in neurogenesis, but the results are difficult to interpret because knockout of Dicer affects all miRNAs, not just the miRNAs of interest. In addition, the stability of mature miRNAs makes conditional Dicer knockout studies difficult to control temporally. This being said, in their review, Akerblom et al. discussed examples taken from studies done on critical regulatory miRNAs in neurogenesis, including miR-124, miR-9, and Let-7 family members (Akerblom et al., 2012). In an interesting original research article, Chen and Wichterle performed conditional knockout of Dicer in motor neuron progenitors in order to elucidate a role for miRNAs in the regulation of post-mitotic neurons and fate specification of different motor neuron subtypes in each segment of the developing spinal cord (Chen and Wichterle, 2012). Their studies revealed that the requirement for Dicer function in motor neurons is subtype-specific and that miRNAs are important for proper motor pool specification and the maintenance of motor neurons (Chen and Wichterle, 2012). In another original research article included in this series, a miRNA sponge was used to block the silencing activity of miR-9 to study the functional role of miR-9 (Otaegi et al., 2012). The authors demonstrated that blocking endogenous miR-9 allows for stronger expression of FoxP1 and a mild reduction in Lhx3-expressing motor neurons, suggesting the involvement of miRNAs in the fine-tuning process of motor neuron subtype identity specification (Otaegi et al., 2012). Using miRNA genome-wide array profiling combined with bioinformatics analysis, Gao et al. identified a collection of miRNAs dynamically regulated by the zinc-finger protein, REST, during neuronal differentiation of primary mouse NSCs. In this study, the authors found that REST is critical for the proper expression of certain miRNAs under varying differentiation conditions, which in turn, provides insight into the REST-regulated stage-specific expression of miRNAs during NSC-neuronal differentiation (Gao et al., 2012). Studies such as these help us to unfold the role that miRNAs play in neurogenesis. In conclusion, the study of neurogenesis is a poignant area of study, particularly because of the difficulties associated with modeling human brain diseases and injuries. Studies of key molecules that regulate the dynamic interactions in the brain, particularly miRNAs, present an opportunity to control and fine-tune NSC populations and cell fate conversion, as they are capable of intricate balance and regulation. Together, these articles reflect a sophisticated and exciting story of the dynamic roles miRNAs play in NSCs and neurogenesis. Further elucidation of the roles of small non-coding RNAs in brain development will serve as a powerful tool in brain disease modeling and therapeutics.

The discovery of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) has “spiced up” the stem cell research field in the last few years. It has made tremendous progress in a very short time by demonstrating that adult fibroblasts could be reprogrammed into iPSCs using pluripotency factors. This suggested that cell fates are not as permanent as initially thought, but rather possess a degree of plasticity. Unsurprisingly, induced pluripotent stem cell technology still faces many technical obstacles before safe and high-quality human iPSCs can be generated for therapeutic applications. This chapter examines the current status of iPSC technology and new methods for ­inducing pluripotency and its use in modeling human disease.

The lens epithelium-derived growth factor p75 (LEDGF/p75) is emerging as a stress response oncoprotein in human cancer. Our group and others showed previously that this transcription coactivator is overexpressed in major human cancers, including prostate cancer, and protects against lysosomal cell death and chemotherapeutic drugs. Although LEDGF/p75 is considered a novel anti-apoptotic protein due to its ability to attenuate lysosomal cell death, previous studies from our group demonstrated its inactivation by caspases during apoptosis. We hypothesized that LEDGF/p75 promotes resistance to stress-induced caspase-independent cell death, but not to apoptosis, in cancer cells. To test this hypothesis, we established PC3 and RWPE-2 prostate cancer cell lines stably overexpressing LEDGF/p75, and evaluated its ability to protect these cells against non-apoptotic and apoptotic insults. LEDGF/p75 significantly attenuated cytotoxicity induced by tert-butyl hydroperoxide (TBHP), a strong inducer of oxidative stress. Characterization of TBHP-induced cell death showed that it was caspase-independent since it could not be inhibited with the broad caspase inhibitor z-VAD-fmk and did not involve caspase-3 activation. Furthermore, TBHP-treated cells displayed a necrotic morphology characterized by extensive cytoplasmic fragmentation and shrunken, non-fragmented nuclei. Necrosis was also confirmed by the appearance in immunoblots of a 45 kD cleavage fragment of DNA topoisomerase that was previously established by our group as a marker of necrosis. Overexpression of LEDGF/p75 attenuated the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in TBHP-treated cells. Interestingly, LEDGF/p75 also attenuated ROS in cells treated with the classical apoptosis inducers staurosporine and TRAIL, but failed to protect against these apoptotic insults. These results indicated that the ability of LEDGF/p75 to attenuate ROS is not sufficient for its pro-survival function. Analysis of LEDGF/p75 integrity by immunoblotting analysis showed that the protein remained intact in cells treated with TBHP, but was cleaved into its signature 65 kd apoptotic fragment in cells treated with staurosporine and TRAIL. Our group has shown previously that this caspase-generated fragment lacks pro-survival activity. Taken together, these results strongly suggest that overexpression of LEDGF/p75 can protect tumor cells from caspase-independent cell death processes in which this protein remains structurally intact. This study provides the basis for investigating the contribution of LEDGF/p75 to prostate cancer resistance to therapeutic modalities that induce caspase-independent cell death, as well as its potential as a novel therapeutic target. Citation Format: {Authors}. {Abstract title} [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 102nd Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research; 2011 Apr 2-6; Orlando, FL. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2011;71(8 Suppl):Abstract nr 2083. doi:10.1158/1538-7445.AM2011-2083