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La pandemia por COVID-19 ha tenido un gran impacto a nivel mundial en la salud poblacional y en la economía personal y global, valorando tanto los costes tangibles como intangibles1. Nuestro objetivo ha sido analizar el coste sanitario de las intervenciones realizadas en la atención y curación del paciente COVID-19 grave en Atención Primaria y estimar la repercusión clínica y económica desde el primer nivel asistencial en comparación con su abordaje a nivel hospitalario.

PANEL MEMBERS: Søren Saxmose Nielsen, Julio Alvarez, Dominique Joseph Bicout, Paolo Calistri, Elisabetta Canali, Julian Ashley Drewe, Bruno Garin-Bastuji, Jose Luis Gonzales Rojas, Christian Gortázar, Mette S. Herskin, Virginie Michel, Miguel Ángel Miranda Chueca, Barbara Padalino, Helen Clare Roberts, Hans Spoolder, Karl Stahl, Antonio Velarde, Christoph Winckler and Arvo Viltrop., Selecting appropriate diagnostic methods that take account of the type of vaccine used is important when implementing a vaccination programme against highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI). If vaccination is effective, a decreased viral load is expected in the samples used for diagnosis, making molecular methods with high sensitivity the best choice. Although serological methods can be reasonably sensitive, they may produce results that are difficult to interpret. In addition to rou-tine molecular monitoring, it is recommended to conduct viral isolation, genetic sequencing and phenotypic characterisation of any HPAI virus detected in vac-cinated flocks to detect escape mutants early. Following emergency vaccination, various surveillance options based on virological testing of dead birds (‘bucket sampling’) at defined intervals were assessed to be effective for early detection of HPAIV and prove disease freedom in vaccinated populations. For ducks, virological or serological testing of live birds was assessed as an effective strategy. This sur-veillance could be also applied in the peri-vaccination zone on vaccinated estab-lishments, while maintaining passive surveillance in unvaccinated chicken layers and turkeys, and weekly bucket sampling in unvaccinated ducks. To demonstrate disease freedom with > 99% confidence and to detect HPAI virus sufficiently early following preventive vaccination, monthly virological testing of all dead birds up to 15 per flock, coupled with passive surveillance in both vaccinated and unvacci-nated flocks, is recommended. Reducing the sampling intervals increases the sen-sitivity of early detection up to 100%. To enable the safe movement of vaccinated poultry during emergency vaccination, laboratory examinations in the 72 h prior to the movement can be considered as a risk mitigation measure, in addition to clinical inspection; sampling results from existing surveillance activities carried out in these 72 h could be used. In this Opinio, Depto. de Sanidad Animal, Fac. de Veterinaria, TRUE, pub

Authorship contribution statement: P. Pozo: Writing – original draft, Visualization, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization, Resources, Validation. J. Isla: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Validation, Resources, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization, Visualization. A. Asiain: Writing – review & editing, Validation. D. Navarro: Writing – review & editing, Validation. C. Gortázar: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Validation, Supervision, Project administration, Methodology, Investigation, Funding acquisition, Conceptualization., Eradication of bovine tuberculosis (bTB) in certain historically low-prevalence regions remains elusive. A complete characterisation of the husbandry practices, biosecurity, and environment where farms are located is crucial to implement targeted in-farm risk mitigation protocols. Here, a detailed survey performed in 94 dairy cattle farms located in Navarra, a low-prevalence region of Spain between 2016 and 2020 was carried out. Data on 73 biosecurity, farm-, and environmental-level factors potentially associated with the risk of bTB occurrence were evaluated using an ordinal logistic regression model: farms were classified based on their prevalence index, a score linked to each farm to account for the severity and recurrence of bTB cases: 22.3% of the farms had a score of 1, 21.3% a score of 2, 26.6% a score of ≥ 3, and 29.8% were negative herds. A statistically significant association between a higher prevalence index and the frequency of badger sightings along with the lease of pastures to sheep during Winter was identified. Farms that detected badgers on a monthly to daily basis in the surroundings and those that leased pastures for sheep flocks during Winter were four [odds ratio, 95% CI (4.3; 1.1–17.5)] and three (3.1; 1.0–9.9) times more likely to have the highest prevalence index, respectively (predicted probabilityprevalence index≥3 = 0.7; 95% CI 0.3–0.9). Conversely, farms that used a vehicle to transport animals from holdings to pastures were less likely (0.1; <0.1–0.3) to present higher levels of prevalence index compared with farms that used none (on foot). Results suggested that the combined effect of farm- and environmental-level risk factors identified here may be hampering disease eradication in Navarra, highlighting the need to implement targeted protocols on farms and grazing plots. An increased awareness of monitoring sheep and wildlife in direct or indirect contact with cattle herds in historically low bTB prevalence areas should be raised., Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (España), Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (España), Depto. de Sanidad Animal, Fac. de Veterinaria, TRUE, pub

Gloria Herrero-García is funded by Junta de Castilla y León and FSE (contract ref LE036-20); Rita Vaz-Rodrigues is funded by Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha (UCLM) and ESF (contract ref. 2022/20675); Pilar Pozo is funded by Juan de la Cierva Formación 2021, funded by the Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación, Agencia Estatal de Investigación and NextGenerationEU/PRTR (contract ref FJC2021-046805-I); Patricia Barroso is funded by a Juan de la Cierva post-doc fellowship (contract ref DC2022-049103-I); and Alberto García-Rodríguez is funded by the EU-NextGenerationEU funds through the 2021–2023 Margarita Salas call for the requalification of the Spanish university system, convened by the Universidad de León, Despite enormous efforts, complete animal tuberculosis (TB) eradication has only been achieved in few regions. Epidemiological analyses are key to identify TB risk factors and set up targeted biosecurity measures. Here, we conducted an in-depth characterization of 84 extensive beef cattle farms from a high TB prevalence region in Western Spain, and assessed how farm management and wildlife presence on farms contribute to cattle TB risk. Twenty-six out of 84 variables were associated with cattle farm TB positivity. Farm management variables associated with TB positivity included older cattle, larger herd size, highly fragmented farm structure and greater connectivity between farms. TB-positive farms provided supplemental feed over a higher number of months, used calf feeders, and had higher number of waterholes. Detecting Eurasian wild boar (Sus scrofa), red fox (Vulpes vulpes), European badger (Meles meles), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), or Egyptian mongoose (Herpestes ichneumon) on cattle farms was also associated with farm TB positivity. The best ordinal regression model indicated that in farms with a large herd size (> 167 animals) the odds of being positive or recurrently positive (versus negative) was 7.34 (95% CI = 2.43–23.51) times higher that of farms with small herd size. Further, for every additional host species detected in the farm premises, the odds of being TB-positive increased 56%. We conclude that both cattle management and wildlife need to be targeted for successful TB control in grazing-based farming systems., A pesar de los enormes esfuerzos, la erradicación completa de la tuberculosis (TB) animal solo se ha logrado en algunas regiones. Los estudios epidemiológicos son fundamentales para identificar factores de riesgo de TB y establecer medidas de bioseguridad específicas. Aquí, realizamos una caracterización exhaustiva de 84 explotaciones de ganado bovino extensivo en una provincia occidental de España con alta prevalencia de TB bovina, y evaluamos cómo el manejo del ganado y la presencia de fauna silvestre contribuían al riesgo de esta enfermedad. De las 84 variables estudiadas, 26 mostraron asociación con la positividad a TB bovina. Entre las variables de manejo destacaron: ganado de mayor edad, rebaños de mayor tamaño, explotaciones altamente fragmentadas y mayor conectividad entre ganaderías. Asimismo, las explotaciones positivas a TB prolongaban la alimentación suplementaria, utilizaban cebaderos para terneros y tenían un mayor número de charcas. La detección de jabalí (Sus scrofa), zorro (Vulpes vulpes), tejón (Meles meles), corzo (Capreolus capreolus) o meloncillo (Herpestes ichneumon) en las ganaderías también se asoció con la positividad a TB. El mejor modelo de regresión ordinal mostró que en explotaciones con un tamaño de rebaño grande (> 167 animales) las probabilidades de ser positivo o recurrentemente positivo (frente a negativo) eran 7,34 (95 % IC = 2,43–23,51) veces superiores, a las de las explotaciones con un tamaño de rebaño pequeño. Además, por cada especie hospedadora susceptible detectada adicionalmente, la probabilidad de que la ganadería fuese positiva a TB aumentaba un 56 %. Concluimos que tanto el manejo del ganado como la interacción con fauna silvestre deben ser considerados para un control exitoso de la TB en explotaciones con sistemas de pastoreo extensivo., European Commission, Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades (España), Depto. de Sanidad Animal, Fac. de Veterinaria, Centro de Vigilancia Sanitaria Veterinaria (VISAVET), TRUE, pub

The EFSA Panel on Animal Health and Welfare (AHAW) was asked to deliver a scientific opinion on the use of high-expansion foam for stunning and killing pigs and poultry. A dossier was provided by the applicant as the basis for an assessment of the extent to which the method is able to provide a level of animal welfare at least equivalent to that ensured by the currently allowed methods for pigs and poultry. According to legislation, to be approved in the EU, new stunning methods must ensure (1) the absence of pain, distress or suffering until the onset of unconsciousness, and (2) that the animal remains unconscious until death. An ad hoc Working Group set up by EFSA performed the assessment as follows: (1) The data provided were checked against the criteria laid down in the EFSA Guidance (EFSA, 2018), and was found to partially fulfil those criteria; (2) extensive literature search; (3) data extraction for quantitative assessment; (4) qualitative exercise based on non-formal expert elicitation. The assessment led to conclude that it is more likely than not (certainty > 50%–100%) that high-expansion foam for stunning and killing pigs and poultry, named NEFS in container (Nitrogen Expansion Foam Stunning in container), provides a level of welfare at least equivalent to one or more of the currently allowed methods listed in Annex I of Council Regulation (EC) No 1099/2009. The overall assessment of EFSA is valid only under the technical conditions described in this Opinion for laying hens, broiler chickens of all age and pigs weighing 15–41 kg in situations other than slaughter. The overall assessment of EFSA is that NEFS can be suitable for depopulation using containers for pig and poultry farms respecting the technical conditions and the categories and types of animals defined in this Scientific Opinion., Depto. de Sanidad Animal, Fac. de Veterinaria, TRUE, pub

2023 Acuerdos transformativos CRUE, Aiming to explore whether oral immunization with heat-inactivated Mycobacterium bovis (HIMB) protects mice against Leishmania infection, 18 female BALB/c mice were randomly assigned to the immunized group, that received oral HIMB, or the control group, and were infected by inoculation of 10,000 Leishmania amazonensis promastigotes in the footpad. Spleen culture was positive in 55.55% of immunized mice and in 100% of control mice (p = 0.082). The number of immunolabeled amastigotes number in the popliteal lymph node was lower in the immunized group (p = 0.009). The immunized group presented fewer mature granulomas in the liver (p = 0.005) and more Lys + macrophages (p = 0.002) and fewer CD3+ T lymphocytes (p < 0.001) per hepatic granuloma. We conclude that immunization with HIMB via the oral route limited local parasite dissemination and hepatic granuloma development in mice challenged with Leishmania amazonensis through stimulation of macrophages, which is compatible with trained immunity., Junta de Castilla-La Mancha, European Commission, Depto. de Sanidad Animal, Centro de Vigilancia Sanitaria Veterinaria (VISAVET), TRUE, pub, APC financiada por la UCM

Based on previous evidence demonstrating the efficacy of inactivated mycobacteria for the control of fish mycobacteriosis, we explored the protective efficacy of two inactivated Mycobacterium bovis administered via parenteral and mucosal routes against Mycobacterium marinum infection mimicking natural conditions in the zebrafish model of tuberculosis. Although we did not observe a clear effect of any of the immunostimulants on mycobacterial burden, the results showed a significant increase in TLR2 and TLR4 gene expression levels in fishes parenterally immunized with inactivated Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG). Our findings demonstrated that the TLR2 and the TLR4 signaling pathways are involved in the immune response elicited by inactivated mycobacteria in the zebrafish model of tuberculosis and support the use of inactivated mycobacteria in vaccine formulations for the control of mycobacteriosis.

In dry climates, livestock farming contributes to waterhole creation and maintenance, thereby contributing to biodiversity conservation. However, these lentic water bodies also represent a critical environmental connection between microorganisms and their vertebrate hosts since the water can facilitate pathogen persistence and transmission. Therefore, interventions for tuberculosis (TB) risk mitigation at the wildlife-livestock interface often focus on segregating host species at water points. We hypothesized that waterhole characteristics modulate their use by vertebrates and subsequent pathogen exposure risk. We visited 298 waterholes on 80 TB-positive and 40 TB-negative cattle farms in Spain to assess differences in waterhole characteristics and identify possible management implications. There was an average of 2.7 waterholes per farm. This represents 0.02 waterholes per km2 of farmland and 3.5 m2 of lentic waterbodies per km2 of farmland. Among the studied waterholes, 95% were man-made. Waterholes on TB-positive farms were 42% closer to covering vegetation than waterholes located on TB-negative ones. Farms with man-made waterholes showed a higher risk of TB than those with natural ones. The density of waterholes per surface unit was negatively associated with the farm TB risk. Waterholes placed on TB-positive farms were more intensively trampled by livestock. The best model explained farm positivity to TB as a function of the distance from the waterholes to the nearest cover vegetation, the aquatic vegetation richness found in the waterhole, the intensity of livestock use (trampling), the surrounding waterhole density, and the interaction between waterhole perimeter and the total number of signs of potential wildlife TB hosts per waterhole. Identifying the key waterhole features related to infection risk might allow designing One Health−inspired biosecurity measures such as increasing the number of waterholes, placing new waterholes farther away from cover, or f