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According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), it has been determined that approximately one in 36 children have been diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Children on the autism spectrum often seek inclusive recreational opportunities, particularly in sports. Golf can be a suitable activity for children on the autism spectrum because it can be played individually and has significant structure and rules. The purpose of this paper is to describe Newell's constraint model and then provide an overview of the design of an adapted golf program for children on the autism spectrum using this approach. This paper will also highlight the individual constraints that need to be considered in the instructional process, the types of manipulation of environmental constraints, and the kinds of developmentally appropriate golf tasks that will enhance children's learning of golf skills. The paper is tailored for physical education teachers incorporating or considering golf programs as a part of their curriculum. Keywords: Autism spectrum disorder, golf, constraints model, motor skills, Introduction Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a developmental disability that can cause significant social, communication, and behavioral challenges (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2021). According to the CDC [...]

The purpose of this pilot study was to examine the effects of improving a physical education teacher's content knowledge and, in turn, the teacher's instructional effectiveness and student learning in an upper elementary physical education setting. Four classes were randomly assigned to either a comparison condition (n[subscript 4th] = 9 students; n[subscript 5th] = 17) or an intervention condition (n[subscript 4th] = 7; n[subscript 5th] = 10). The teacher taught both conditions. The teacher first taught two classes in the comparison condition in a manner that he had taught for the past five years. Following the completion of the teaching, he received a content knowledge workshop. After the workshop, the teacher taught two classes in the intervention condition. Assessment of the teacher following the workshop showed that he obtained higher content knowledge scores than prior to the workshop. These improvements in content knowledge positively impacted his enacted teaching with more appropriate task selection and better instruction. Student learning also significantly improved in the intervention condition, not in the comparison condition, from pre- to posttest. The findings of this study extend the research demonstrating the effectiveness of improving the content knowledge of teachers in impacting student learning, in this case in the upper elementary grade band.

An estimated 60 million children and adolescents between the ages of 6 and 18 participate in some form of organized athletics in the United States. Unfortunately, the youth sport landscape has changed such that organizations and coaches inform parents and athletes that early sport specialization (ESS) is an essential requirement for elite performance. Despite evidence that opposes this limited track, parents continue to overlook the potential negative consequences. Although the media commonly portrays ESS as the only pathway to success, research of Olympians and elite athletes in team sports indicates otherwise. To date, there has been ongoing research that examines the outcomes of ESS on athletes, but a large portion focuses solely on athlete burnout and injuries from specializing too early. On the contrary, there has been less attention toward the influences and interactions of programs and coaches on and with parents, who greatly influence their child's sporting experience. Parents place trust in programs and coaches but are often misled by common myths. This article summarizes the common myths that lead parents to enroll their children in ESS. By having awareness of these three common myths, parents can become better informed on the perceived requirement of ESS for elite performance in youth sport., Sport continues to be a popular activity among children and adolescents. An estimated 60 million children and adolescents between the ages of 6 and 18 participate in some form of [...]

Purpose: This study examined the extent to which fundamental motor skill competence (FMSC; locomotor and object control skill competence) and perceived physical competence (PPC) predicted physical activity levels and sedentary behaviors during free-play time at preschool. Method: A total of 72 children (girls n = 33, boys n = 39; M[subscript age] = 4.38, SD = 0.85 years) were recruited from two preschools. Fundamental motor skill competence was measured using the Test of Gross Motor Development - 2nd edition, and PPC was assessed using the physical competence subscale of the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance. Physical activity was measured using accelerometers. Results: Children engaged in light physical activity 19.66%, and moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) 36.41%, and sedentary behaviors 43.94% of their free-play time. Since no correlation was observed in light physical activity with any variables, a hierarchical multiple linear regression was run for MVPA and sedentary behaviors. The results illustrated 38.9% of the variance in MVPA during free-play time was predicted by FMSC and PPC, after controlling for age and sex, with locomotor skill competence as a significant predictor (t= 2.98, p < 0.05). For sedentary behaviors, the 32.9% of the variance during free-play time was predicted by FMSC and PPC, after controlling age and sex, with locomotor skill competence as a significant predictor (t = 2.72, p < 0.05). Conclusion: The findings highlight the importance of developing FMSC and positive PPC during early childhood to enhance physical activity engagement during free-play.

Background: Recent studies have found the effects of improvements in teachers' content knowledge (CK) on enacted pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) and student learning outcomes. However, there is little research exploring the relationship between PCK and student learning in an individual fundamental motor skill-based elementary physical education setting. Purpose: The primary focus of this study was to examine the influence of teacher content knowledge (i.e. CCK and SCK) and teacher's knowledge of student's developmental stages on enacted PCK in the context of a physical education class. A secondary aim of this study was to examine the influence of teachers' instruction (enacted PCK) of a four-day throwing unit on a student's throwing performance. Participants and setting: Two physical education (PE) teachers were randomly selected from two public, suburban, mid-sized elementary schools in a southwestern city. A total of 122 (M[subscript age] = 7.42; SD = 0.49) first (n = 70, 36 girls and 34 boys) and second-grade (n = 52, 29 girls and 23 boys) student participants from mid-sized elementary schools in a southwestern city in the United States participated in this study. Data Collection: A within-subjects design was utilized to examine the changes of the teachers' PCK prior to and following a professional development workshop and their students' throwing performance. Each of the two elementary PE teachers had six 1st grade and six 2nd grade classes. From the list of six classes taught by the individual teacher, two classes were randomly assigned to either a comparison condition (one 1st grade and one 2nd grade; n = 61, 34 girls and 27 boys) and an experimental condition (one 1st grade and one 2nd grade; n = 61, 34 girls and 27 boys) groups. Data Analysis: There were three phases to this study. The first involved implementation of the comparison condition; in the second, a professional development workshop was delivered to the teachers; lastly, the experimental condition was assigned. The four PCK variables measured were, for teachers, (1) task representation, (2) task demonstration, (3) feedback, and (4) task modification alignment and, for students, throwing performance (ball velocity). Descriptive statistics (i.e. means and frequencies) were used to analyze teaching behaviors, and an independent samples t-test based on the highest ball velocity score was used to examine the influence of the teachers' PCK on students' learning of overhand throwing. Cohen's d (1988) was utilized to report effect sizes of teachers' PCK. Results: Teachers' PCK changed as a function of their CK and knowledge of students, with effect sizes ranging from 1.49-7.23. Furthermore, improvement in the teachers' PCK was associated with students' improved throwing performance (p = 0.000). Conclusion: The findings of this study suggest that teachers' PCK behaviors can be changed by increasing their CK and knowledge of their students and that this improvement in PCK can result in better student learning outcomes.

Although significant attention has been given to promoting physical activity among children, little attention has been given to the developmental process of how children learn to move or to the changing role that motor skill development plays in children's physical activity levels as they grow. In order to successfully address the obesity epidemic, it is important to understand the underlying mechanisms that can lead children and adolescents to physical activity or inactivity. This article suggests that there is a dynamic relationship between students' motor skill competence and their motivation to participate in physical activity. (Contains 1 figure.)

Goal-directed reflection (GDR) is a strategy that targets the contemplative examination of specific aspects of teaching. The GDR process can be used by a PETE program that uses a systematic approach to supervision. The process consists of identifying specific teaching behaviors, aligning these target behaviors with Praxis III/Pathwise domains, collecting and analyzing data to determine the achievement of goals, and setting new teaching goals. The candidates benefit from a focus on specific teaching behaviors and from the feedback they receive when they meet their goals. Goal-directed reflection creates a shared language and consistent message throughout the teacher preparation program, and it helps the teacher candidate to achieve programmatic expectations as well as demonstrate local, state, and national standards for beginning teachers. (Contains 2 tables.)

Tennis is a lifelong physical activity that is played from young childhood to adulthood. Tennis can be used to meet several of SHAPE America's National Standards and Grade-level Outcomes for K-12 Physical Education in elementary school. Specifically, tennis is tied to outcomes relative to "striking with a short implement" in the manipulative skills category in National Standard 1. While the learning outcomes in striking are not specific to tennis, tennis provides a context for their teaching. This article introduces an evidenced-based knowledge packet of 14 instructional tasks to teach tennis to upper elementary students. The focus of this packet is on beginning tennis, which would be taught to upper elementary grades students who are transitioning from learning discrete skills to learning to apply those skills in developmentally appropriate games. The tasks in the knowledge packet are underpinned by Rink's four stages of game development model and the concept of content development.

Background: Fundamental motor skill (FMS) interventions when delivered by an expert can significantly improve the FMS of young children with and without developmental delays. However, there is a gap in the literature as few early childhood centers employ experts with the professional background to deliver FMS intervention. Purpose: The primary purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of a motor skill program called SKIP (Successful Kinesthetic Instruction for Preschoolers) on student learning of object control skills (OC). A secondary purpose was to examine the extent to which early childhood teachers could implement the SKIP program with fidelity (while receiving on-going coaching and support) and the extent to which instructional fidelity influenced OC improvement in the SKIP condition. Participants and setting: There were two levels of participants in this study, early childhood teachers (N = 2, Women = 2) and their students (N = 57; Boys = 53%; M[subscript age] = 4.39, "Range" 3-6). All participants were from the same early childhood center located on the campus of a large Midwestern University located in the United States. Data Collection: This study featured a pretest-posttest control group quasi-experimental design. The director of the early childhood center selected the experimental SKIP teachers (N = 2). Experimental SKIP children (n = 26) were identified from the classrooms of the experimental SKIP teachers. Teachers implemented SKIP to their students for six weeks (360 minutes of instruction). SKIP teachers' lesson plan fidelity was calculated using a predetermined checklist based upon the lesson plan via digital recordings. Control students (n = 31) were randomly selected from the remaining six classrooms at the center. Control students received the business as usual condition, which consisted of free play with the availability of the same equipment allocated to the SKIP condition. All students were pretested and posttested using the OC subscale of the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2) [Ulrich, D. A. 2000. "The Test of Gross Motor Development." 2nd ed. Austin: PRO-ED]. Data Analysis: A two-level (students nested within teacher) Hierarchical Linear Model (HLM) examined the extent to which the SKIP intervention improved the OC skills of the students compared to the control group. Lesson plan fidelity was calculated using descriptive statistics. An additional two-level HLM examined the extent to which fidelity of SKIP influenced the OC scores of students in the SKIP condition only. Results: SKIP students significantly improved their OC skills compared to the control students (p < 0.001, ?[superscript 2] = 0.61). SKIP teachers implemented SKIP with fidelity (M = 86.5%, SD = 0.18). Level of fidelity of SKIP significantly influenced students' improvements in OC scores (p < 0.001). Conclusion: SKIP was highly effective in improving the OC skills of the students and SKIP teachers implemented SKIP with fidelity. Greater fidelity positively influenced OC outcomes for students. Further research is warranted to confirm that students' FMS development can be enhanced through FMS intervention with high-quality teaching that is implemented by classroom teachers.

Purpose: Children from disadvantaged settings are at risk for delays in their object-control (OC) skills. Fundamental motor skill interventions, such as the Successful Kinesthetic Instruction for Preschoolers (SKIP) Program, are highly successful when led by motor development experts. However, few preschools employ such experts. This study examined the extent to which Head Start teachers delivering an 8-week teacher-led SKIP (T-SKIP) intervention elicited learning of OC skills for Head Start children. Method: Head Start teachers (n = 5) delivered T-SKIP for 8 weeks (450 min). Control teachers (n = 5) implemented the typical standard of practice, or well-equipped free play. All children (N = 122) were pretested and posttested on the OC Skill subscale of the Test of Gross Motor Development-2. Results: Descriptive analyses at pretest identified 81% of the children were developmentally delayed in OC skills (below the 30th percentile). A 2-level hierarchical linear model demonstrated the effectiveness of T-SKIP with significant differences (ß = 4.70), t(8) = 7.02, p < 0.001, ?2 = 0.56, between T-SKIP children (n = 63) and control children (n = 59) at posttest. Conclusion: Head Start teachers who delivered T-SKIP could bring about positive changes in children's OC skills, thereby remediating the initial developmental delays presented. Control children remained delayed in their OC skills in spite of daily well-equipped free play, giving rise to concerns about their future motor competence and physical activity levels.

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), it has been determined that approximately one in 36 children have been diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Children on the autism spectrum often seek inclusive recreational opportunities, particularly in sports. Golf can be a suitable activity for children on the autism spectrum because it can be played individually and has significant structure and rules. The purpose of this paper is to describe Newell's constraint model and then provide an overview of the design of an adapted golf program for children on the autism spectrum using this approach. This paper will also highlight the individual constraints that need to be considered in the instructional process, the types of manipulation of environmental constraints, and the kinds of developmentally appropriate golf tasks that will enhance children's learning of golf skills. The paper is tailored for physical education teachers incorporating or considering golf programs as a part of their curriculum. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Preschool children who are at risk have been shown to demonstrate developmental delays in their fundamental motor skills. The body of research on motor skill development of children indicates that these children, when provided with motor skill instruction, significantly improved their locomotor and object control (OC) skill performances. Purpose: The purpose of this study and the primary research question was to examine the influence of two eight-week motor skill interventions (SKIP--successful kinesthetic instruction for preschoolers and SKIP-PI--SKIP-parent involvement) on the OC competence of preschoolers identified as disadvantaged. Participants and setting: Seventy-two children (36 girls and 36 boys) from two Head Start centers participated in this study. Both centers were the part of the same child development council and had the same standard Head Start curriculum. Data collection: Random assignment of children to intervention group in school A (SKIP or SKIP-PI) was performed. Random assignment of children to the comparison group in school B also occurred. Baseline measures of the test of gross motor development-2 (TGMD-2) were completed at the pretest. During the eight-week intervention the children received their regular Head Start program in addition to the SKIP and SKIP-PI conditions that took place during the school day. The comparison group received the regular Head Start program with no additional motor instruction. After completing the eight-week intervention all groups were tested on the TGMD-2 at the posttest and again one month after the intervention at a retention test. All data collection procedures were videotaped and analyzed by a trained researcher. Data analysis: Descriptive statistics were performed to ascertain baseline measures of OC performance. Two 3 group (SKIP, SKIP-PI, comparison) × 2 time (pretest, posttest) or (posttest, retention test) × 2 gender (girls, boys) analysis of variance (ANOVA) with repeat measures were conducted to examine the influence of the interventions on OC performance and whether any differences occurred by gender. The statistic of interest was a group × time interaction and the group × time × gender interaction for "pretest to posttest" and "posttest to retention test" separately. Follow-up tests were performed if necessary by Statistical Analysis Software to identify where the differences lie. For posttest and retention test, 3 group (SKIP, SKIP-PI, comparison) × 2 gender (girls, boys) ANOVA was conducted to examine the group main effect, the gender main effect and the group by gender interaction. Findings: The findings indicated the SKIP and the SKIP-PI groups were significantly different from the comparison group (p < 0.017), but both groups were not significantly different in OC skills from pretest to posttest. The results also indicated the SKIP (p = 0.00) and the SKIP-PI (p = 0.01) were significantly different from the comparison group over time, but, both groups were not significantly different from posttest to retention test. Conclusions: Overall, these findings show that young children who are disadvantaged demonstrate delays in their motor skills prior to intervention. If high quality structured motor skill intervention in the form of SKIP is provided, they can gain significant improvements in their OC skill development.

Softball is taught in many physical education programs throughout the United States. This article describes modifications that maximize learning outcomes and that address the National Standards and safety recommendations. The modifications focus on tasks and equipment, developmentally appropriate motor-skill acquisition, increasing number of trials, and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity. Readers are provided with a continuum of choices for equipment and activity types, as well as a 10-day sample unit for middle school.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to explore how parent involvement influenced the effectiveness of a movement intervention targeting gross motor skills and physical activity behavior in preschool-aged boys and girls. Methods: Parents received training at monthly school-based sessions and online to implement the movement intervention once per month at school and once per week at home across 6 months (N = 104; Mage = 48.30 months, SD = 6.90). Children completed the Test of Gross Motor Development-3 at baseline and wore physical activity trackers 24/7 for six weeks during the intervention. COVID-19 disrupted the intervention and prevented immediate post testing. Children (N = 60; Mage = 60.86 months, SD = 6.57) who returned to the center one year later completed gross motor skill retention testing. Results: For each additional school-based session attended by the parents (up to six), children's locomotor and manipulative skills were 1.87 and 1.95 points higher, respectively, at the start of the following academic year. For physical activity, each session increase in attendance at the school-based component of the intervention resulted in an additional 1455 steps in average weekly step count. Conclusion: Increased parent engagement demonstrated greater change in gross motor skills and larger acute physical activity responses. Understanding barriers that impact the level of parental intervention engagement (i.e., dose) also provides insight into why some children learn and others do not within a parent-led intervention. Although the implementation and results of this study were impacted by COVID, these data can help researchers optimize future intervention strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: To improve student performance, teachers need to evaluate the developmental level of the child and to deliver feedback statements that correspond with the student's ability to process the information delivered. Therefore, feedback aligned with the developmental level of the child (aligned developmental feedback--ADF) is sometimes considered to be the most appropriate type of feedback for improving student learning. It is assumed that the provision of ADF is beneficial in bringing about improvement in the learning of motor skills and subsequently in performance. However, the extent of the influence of ADF on motor performance remains unclear. Purpose: This study examined the influence of ADF on students' performance of the overhand throw for force in a naturalistic physical education setting. Participants: Ninety-seven third-grade students (39 girls, 58 boys) with a mean age of 105.4 months (SD = 4.76) participated in this study. All participants were selected from four intact classrooms in a mid-sized Midwestern (US) elementary school. Two of the four intact classes were randomly assigned to an ADF group (the experimental condition; N = 48, 21 girls, 27 boys), and the other two intact classes were assigned to a general feedback (GF) group (the control condition; N = 49, 18 girls, 31 boys). Research design and phases of the study: An experimental non-equivalent group design composed of pre-, post-, and retention phases assessed the influence of ADF on throwing performance. The study used a three-phase approach: Phase 1 involved the implementation of the control GF condition with the participants: a seven-day throwing unit using general feedback. After Phase 1 was concluded, the first part of the experimental condition was initiated (Phase 2): to train the physical education teacher (male, with seven years of teaching experience, who had no prior knowledge of developmental throwing sequences) to deliver the experimental condition (i.e. the ADF condition). Phase 2 concluded when the teacher was considered trained in the ADF condition. The final phase of the study (Phase 3) was the actual experimental condition, consisting of a seven-day ADF instructional throwing unit. Data analysis: A chi-square analysis was used to examine the influence of ADF on the distribution of body component scores between the ADF and GF groups from the pre- to post- to retention phases as the body component data is ordinal in nature. An ANOVA with repeated measures on the highest ball velocity score was used to assess the influence of ADF on ball velocity scores. Findings: An ANOVA revealed that the ADF group had faster ball velocity than the GF group from pre- to post-intervention. Chi-square analyses revealed that the ADF group improved from pretest to posttest in the humerus and forearm components. The effects found at the end of the intervention program were maintained throughout the retention phase. Conclusions: The findings demonstrate the value of ADF in the learning process, and show how such feedback can enhance students' performance. (Contains 2 tables and 1 figure.)

This study examined the influence of gender and region on object control (OC) and locomotor skill development. Participants were 275 midwestern African American and 194 southwestern Hispanic preschool children who were disadvantaged. All were evaluated on the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (Ulrich, 2000). Two, 2 Gender (girls, boys) x 2 Region (midwest, southwest) analyses of variance were conducted on OC and locomotor percentile rank. Both midwestern and southwestern preschoolers were developmentally delayed in locomotor and OC skills (less than 30th percentile). There was a significant difference for gender (p less than 0.0001) and Gender x Region interaction (p = 0.02) for OC skills. Boys outperformed girls in the midwestern and southwestern regions. For locomotor skills, there was a significant difference for region (p less than 0.001), with midwestern preschoolers having better locomotor skills. (Contains 2 tables.)

In Part II of this study, we examined the effect of two 9-week instructional climates (low-autonomy [LA] and mastery motivational climate [MMC]) on perceived physical competence (PPC) in preschoolers (N = 117). Participants were randomly assigned to an LA, MMC, or comparison group. PPC was assessed by a pretest, posttest, and retention test with the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance. A significant Treatment x Time interaction (p less than 0.001) was present, supporting that MMC participants reported significantly higher PPC scores over time, while no positive changes were present in LA and comparison participants. The results show that an MMC leads to psychological benefits related to achievement motivation. These findings should encourage early childhood educators to consider the effect of instructional climates on children's self-perception. (Contains 1 table and 1 figure.) [For Part I, see EJ870247.]

Part I of this study examined the effect of two 9-week instructional climates (low autonomy [LA] and mastery motivational climate [MMC]) on object-control (OC) skill development in preschoolers (N = 117). Participants were randomly assigned to an LA, MMC, or comparison group. OC skills were assessed at pretest, posttest, and retention test with the Test of Gross Motor Development-2nd Edition. A significant Treatment x Time interaction (p less than 0.001) was present, supporting the effectiveness of both OC instructional climates in improving OC skills over time, while the comparison group resulted in no changes. The authors conclude that developmentally and instructionally appropriate climates are beneficial to OC skill learning, along with the need for "planned" movement experiences in motor learning environments. (Contains 1 figure.)

The study purposes were to describe throwing form and gender differences before and after instruction during a game. Children's (ages 6-8, n = 105) throwing form was assessed while they played a game (snowball) using the Body Component Assessment for Throwing in Games to determine the modal developmental levels for the step, trunk, and forearm components. Each student received four 30-min sessions of throwing instruction. There were significant (p less than 0.017) gender differences at each session and for each component. A Wilcoxon-Signed Ranks Test revealed differences (p less than 0.017) between pretest and after instruction for boys' trunk and forearm components and girls' step and trunk components. The improvement after instruction and gender differences were similar to those found in a controlled, practice context. (Contains 3 tables and 3 figures.)

Although significant attention has been paid to promoting the importance of physical activity in children, adolescents, and adults, we do not currently understand how to promote sustained physical activity levels throughout the lifespan. We contend that previous research has failed to consider the dynamic and synergistic role that motor skill competence plays in the initiation, maintenance, or decline of physical activity and how this role might change across developmental time. In this article, we present a conceptual model hypothesizing the relationships among physical activity, motor skill competence, perceived motor skill competence, health-related physical fitness, and obesity. We contend that the development of motor skill competence is a primary underlying mechanism that promotes engagement in physical activity. (Contains 1 figure.)

Teachers' attitudes toward the use of technology vary greatly. Studies show that many teachers have negative attitudes toward the use of technology and that gender differences exist, with females using technology less than their male counterparts. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a technology-focused professional development intervention on the technology competence of physical educators. A second purpose of the study was to examine the effects of a technology PD intervention on the attitudes toward technology, specifically physical education teachers' affinity for and aversion against technology. The participants were 41 physical education teachers from school districts in and around a large Midwestern U.S. city. This study found that a technology intervention produced significant gains in total technology competency, integration of technology competency, and affinity to technology from pre- to post-intervention. There was a trend to a significant group by time interaction for total technology competency. Based on the findings of the study, the authors contend that teachers in the field must be trained to use the new technologies that exist and to integrate them into their instruction in ways that support and enhance their instructional goals without inhibiting them. Likewise teachers in preservice programs must graduate with the necessary skills to use, integrate, and adapt technology in their teaching. (Contains 2 tables.)

Little attention has been given to the developmental process of "how children learn to move" and the changing role that emerging motor competence may play in children and youths' physical activity levels as they grow. But we need to recognize that there is a developmental trajectory to physical activity and the factors that affect it if we are going to get urban youths to be physically active. This article discusses the role that motor competence can play in promoting and sustaining youth physical activity and describes how motor competence can be improved in young children.

With childhood obesity and physical inactivity at an all-time high, parents and physical educators alike must look to the early years to promote competent and confident young movers. Popular opinion believes that children are naturally active and motor skill development progresses as a normal function of getting older. However, if one looks at preschool and elementary playgrounds and gymnasiums, many young children are neither active nor the competent and confident movers one would like them to be. NASPE has developed a document called "Active Start: A Statement of Physical Activity Guidelines for Children Birth to Age 5." This document outlines five guidelines for each of the three age groups: (1) infancy (0-1 year); (2) toddlers (1-3 years); and (3) preschoolers (3-5 years). In this article, the authors focus on the preschool guidelines, as these guidelines have application to working with young children in general, even those in the early years of public school. The authors provide a brief overview of the guidelines along with some suggestions for activities and resources.

Purpose: Identifying profiles of preschoolers' motor competence (MC) is essential for providing accurate and targeted intervention. However, little is known regarding children's MC profiles, more specifically how skills may present in unique clusters. The purposes of the study were to explore MC profiles of U.S. children ages 3–6 years, quantify the uniqueness of these profiles, and examine differences by age, gender, race, geographic region, socioeconomic status, and Body Mass Index z-scores. Methods: Participants included children (N = 582, ngirls = 296) aged 3–6 years (Mage = 4.97, SD =.75) enrolled in one of seven early childhood education centers (Alabama, Louisiana, Ohio [× 2], South Carolina [× 2], Texas). Each child's MC was assessed with the 12 skills comprising the TGMD-2. Latent profile analysis was performed using the 12 MC skills. Results: Five profiles of MC emerged, three of which show developing MC but in varying combinations. Wald tests revealed possible MC advantages for preschool children who are older, boys, reside in an urban region, and are of higher socioeconomic status, but only for the proficient MC profile. Conclusion: By uncovering five unique latent MC profiles, professionals should consider the presentation/origins of each profile and use such knowledge to create targeted, individualized MC interventions in American preschoolers. From a research perspective, the implications of this study suggest that researchers should consider person-oriented approaches examining individual skill scores (vs. summed subscale scores) whenever possible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of the study was to examine the influence of critical cues and task constraints on body-component levels and maximum ball velocity. 81 children (M age = 97.8 mo.) were systematically assigned to one of four strategies. Participants completed 15 throws during each of 4 practice sessions. Differences between groups were found for body-component developmental levels and ball velocity. The differences indicate prompts to throw the ball hard and fast impact ball velocity and body-components by developmental levels. Critical cues also appear to be a useful tool to improve the step component. Results suggest the use of forceful throwing tasks, cues, and velocity feedback can be useful tools to influence throwing performance.