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Increasing demand for wood is putting pressure on forest resources that are equally under threat from insect pests and diseases. Reported average annual forest loss stands at 0.2% globally, 0.8% in Africa, and 1.6% in Kenya. To meet the increasing demand for forest products in Kenya, the government and private sector have established plantations of non-native tree species dominated by Eucalyptus species, Cupressus lusitanica, and Pinus patula. To ensure successful forest plantation establishment and management schemes, there is a need for sufficient knowledge and understanding of tree growth conditions and threats including pests and diseases. This study aimed at determining the incidence of plantation and tree nurseries in Kimondi Forest, Kenya. Tree plantations were mapped into 2.5 Ha rectangular portion transects parallel to the forest roads. In randomly selected portions, observations were carried out for disease and pest signs and symptoms on various tree parts (leaves, stem, roots, fruits, and twigs). In the tree nurseries, 3 m × 1 m rectangular quadrants were placed on seedling beds and similar observations were made. Collected data indicated a high incidence of nursery seedling pests (5.3 % leaves and 5.1% stems) on Eucalyptus species and least on P. patula (2.4% leaves and 3% stems). Higher incidence of plantation pests (35.0% leaves of Eucalyptus sps.) and least on P. patula stems (1.2%) were recorded. On the other hand, twelve (12.0%) of C. lusitanica and (1.8%) Eucalyptus species plantation twigs were infested by pests. A high incidence of nursery seedling disease (9.8%) was observed on C. lusitanica leaves and least on P. patula stems (3.6%). Higher incidence of plantation diseases (32 %) on leaves of Eucalyptus sps. and least on C. lusitanica stem (1.4%) was recorded. In both tree nurseries and plantations, roots and fruits remained free from pests and disease. Major tree pests and diseases identified in Kimondi forests include (Human, wildlife, livestock, Cinara cupressi, Gonipterus scutellatus, Pinus pini, and Leptocybe invasa) and (damping-off, Fusarium wilt, Botryosphaeria canker, cypress canker, and Mycosphaerella spp.) respectively. These results suggest a need for regular monitoring and intervention measures to control pest and disease infestation in the Kimondi forest.

is a beetle causing severe defoliation to South Africa’s eucalyptus plantations. This defoliation induced by the beetle inhibits the eucalypts ability to photosynthesize, by affecting its chlorophy...

Gonipterus scutellatus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), once thought to be a single species, is now known to reside in a complex of at least eight cryptic species. Two of these species (G. platensis and G. pulverulentus) and an undescribed species (Gonipterus sp. n. 2) are invasive pests on five continents. A single population of Anaphes nitens, an egg parasitoid, has been used to control all three species of Gonipterus throughout the invaded range. Limited knowledge regarding the different cryptic species and their diversity significantly impedes efforts to manage the pest complex outside the native range. In this review, we consider the invasion and taxonomic history of the G. scutellatus cryptic species complex and the implications that the cryptic species diversity could have on management strategies. The ecological and biological aspects of these pests that require further research are identified. Strategies that could be used to develop an ecological approach towards managing the G. scutellatus species complex are also suggested.

The study was initiated by the relative failure of the parasitoid Anaphes nitens in controlling the eucalypt weevil Gonipterus platensis on the Iberian Peninsula. Our aim was to gain insight into the community of Gonipterus egg parasitoids occurring in Tasmania. During surveys in 2016 and 2017, adult weevils and egg pods were collected from Eucalyptus trees in Tasmania. The weevils were identified using male genital structure and DNA extracted from hatched larvae. Parasitoids that emerged from the egg pods were identified, and trophic associations of egg parasitoids, weevils and host plants were analyzed. Five species of the Gonipterus scutellatus complex, to which G. platensis belongs, were found, including Gonipterus sp. 2, which is reported for the first time from Tasmania. Molecular analysis corroborated previous phylogenetic studies of this group of species. A sixth species, G. notographus, was also collected. Most species were found to overlap in distribution in Tasmania and, despite being oligophagous, to display selectivity among Eucalyptus species used as hosts: G. platensis and G. pulverulentus were mainly found on E. ovata, Gonipterus sp. 1 on E. nitens and E. globulus and G. notographus on ‘peppermint’ species (E. amygdalina and E. pulchella). Five egg parasitoid species were found associated with these Gonipterus species: Anaphes inexpectatus, A. nitens, A. tasmaniae, Cirrospilus sp. and Euderus sp., with no apparent host specialization. Anaphes nitens, Cirrospilus sp. and Euderus sp. were more frequently found on E. ovata, possibly associated with G. platensis and G. pulverulentus, which were dominant on this host species. Conversely, A. inexpectatus was dominantly found on peppermints (43%), suggesting a main association with G. notographus. Anaphes nitens was found at 23 locations out of 117 and in 2017 was the most abundant parasitoid obtained, with an average 20% parasitism rate, indicating that this species is undergoing a geographical and population expansion since its first report from Tasmania in 2012. These findings contribute to the understanding of the parasitoid-Gonipterus-Eucalyptus trophic relationship and stand to improve future classical biological control programs against G. platensis and other invasive Gonipterus species.

Gonipterus scutellatus outbreaks may severely defoliate Eucalyptus plantations growing in South Africa. Therefore, detecting and mapping the severity and extent of G. scutellatus defoliation is essential for the deployment of suppressive measures. In this study, we tested the utility of spatially optimized vegetation indices and an artificial neural network in detecting and mapping G. scutellatus-induced vegetation defoliation, using both visual estimates of percentage defoliation and optical leaf area index (LAI) measures. We tested both field methods to determine which of the two were more superior in detecting vegetation defoliation using optimized vegetation indices. These indices were computed from a WorldView-2 pan-sharpened image, which is characterized with a 0.5-m spatial resolution and eight spectral bands. The indices were resampled to spatial resolutions that best represented levels of G. scutellatus-induced defoliation. The results showed that levels of defoliation, using visual perce...

Gonipterus scutellatus Gyllenhal is a leaf feeding weevil that is a major defoliator of the genus Eucalyptus . Understanding the relationship between levels of weevil induced vegetation defoliation and the optimal spatial resolution of satellite images is essential for effective management of plantation resources. The objective of this study was to identify appropriate spatial resolutions for predicting levels of weevil induced defoliation. We resampled the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), Simple Ratio (SR) and Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) images computed from a WorldView-2 pan-sharpened image, which is characterised with a 0.5 m spatial resolution and 8 spectral bands. Within each plantation compartment 30 × 30 m plots were established, representing different levels of defoliation. From the centre of each plot, the spatial resolution of the original image was progressively resampled from 1.5 to 8.5 m, with 1 m increments. The minimal variance for each level of defoliation was then established and used as an indicator for quantitatively selecting the optimal spatial resolution. Results indicate that an appropriate spatial resolution was established at 1.25, 1.25, 1.75 and 2.25 m for low, medium, high and severe levels of defoliation, respectively. In addition, an Artificial Neural Network was run to determine the relationship between the appropriate spatial resolution and levels of Gonipterus scutellatus induced defoliation. The model yielded an R 2 of 0.80, with an RMSE of 1.28 (2.45% of the mean measured defoliation) based on an independent test dataset. We then compared this model to a model developed using the original 0.5 m image spatial resolution. Our results suggest that optimising the spatial resolution of remotely sensed imagery essentially improves the prediction of vegetation defoliation. In essence, this study provides the foundation for multi-scale defoliation mapping using high spatial resolution imagery.

The Panel on Plant health performed a pest categorisation of the Australian Eucalyptus snout-beetle Gonipterus scutellatus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), for the EU. G. scutellatus should be referred as the G. scutellatus species complex because it includes several cryptic species. A complete nomenclature of the species present in the EU is still pending. It is a quarantine pest listed in Annex IIB of Council Directive 2000/29/EC. Protected zones are in place in Greece and Portugal (Azores). In the EU, it has been found in Italy, France, Spain and Portugal. It only consumes Eucalyptus species leaves. The main pathways of spread are the trade of Eucalyptus timber, hitchhiking in various commodities, trade of apple fruit as well as of plants for planting or plant parts. Spread by fl ight is also possible. The climate of the EU protected zones is similar to that of the Member States (MS) where the G. scutellatus complex is established, and the pest ’ s main host plants are present. The damaged trees suffer die-back and the development of epicormics shoots. Severe attacks may provoke massive amounts of tree death. Biological control by using the egg parasitoid wasp Anaphes nitens is the most effective control measure. Some species within the G. scutellatus complex are not yet present in the EU (including G. scutellatus sensu stricto) and might therefore be considered as potential union quarantine pests for the EU territory. At least two species within the G. scutellatus complex (most likely G. platensis and Gonipterus species no. 2) meet the criteria assessed by EFSA for consideration as potential protected zone quarantine pests for the territory of the protected zones: Greece and Portugal (Azores). The criteria for considering the G. scutellatus complex as a potential regulated non- quarantine pest for the EU are not met since plants for planting are not the main pathway.

Defoliation induced by the weevil Gonipterus scutellatus is causing significant damage to South Africa’s eucalyptus plantations. Therefore, the ability of remote sensing to detect and map G. scutellatus defoliation is essential for monitoring the spread of the weevil so that precautionary measures are set in place. In our study, an integrated approach using image texture in various processing combinations and an artificial neural network (ANN) were developed to detect and map G. scutellatus induced vegetation defoliation. A 0.5-m WorldView-2 pan-sharpened image was used to compute texture parameters from the gray-level occurrence matrix and gray-level co-occurrence matrix, using optimal moving windows for specific levels of G. scutellatus induced vegetation defoliation. In order to improve the accuracy of detecting and mapping G. scutellatus induced vegetation defoliation, a method involving a three-band texture processing combination was proposed and tested. Using a sequential forward selection algorithm allowed for the selection of optimal texture combinations, which were subsequently input into a backpropagation ANN. The results showed an improvement in detecting vegetation defoliation using single texture bands [R2 = 0.82, root mean square error (RMSE) = 0.95 (1.82% of the mean measured defoliation)] when compared to single spectral reflectance bands [R2 = 0.60, RMSE = 1.79 (3.43% of the mean measured defoliation)], two-band spectral reflectance combination model [R2 = 0.74, RMSE = 1.48 (2.83% of the mean measured defoliation)], and the three-band spectral reflectance combination model [R2 = 0.80, RMSE = 1.35 (2.59% of the mean measured defoliation)]. Further improvements were obtained using the two-band texture combination model [R2 = 0.85, RMSE = 1.05 (2.01% of the mean measured defoliation)] and the most promising result was obtained using the proposed three-band texture combination model [R2 = 0.90, RMSE = 0.85 (1.63% of the mean measured defoliation)]. Overall, our study highlights the potential of image texture combinations in improving the detection and mapping of vegetation defoliation.

Australian-origin pests of eucalypts have been moving around the world almost as long as the trees themselves. Up until the 1990’s there was a steady linear increase in the numbers of these pests establishing overseas, with relatively slow subsequent movement. Under this scenario, traditional approaches to classical biological control - where individual countries or regions funded natural enemy searches in Australia, carried out required specificity testing and released the agents - were effective. However, since the 1990’s, the establishment rate of new pests has increased almost exponentially (correlated with enormously increased trade and people movement) with rapid subsequent invasion of these pests into new countries and across continents exacerbating the problem. This has necessitated new approaches to developing biological control programs, with individual countries less able to cope with multiple pests arriving almost simultaneously. A globally collaborative approach to biological control is therefore required, where funds and expertise can be effectively and cost-efficiently pooled and shared to develop biological control for these eucalypt pests. Methods: A collaborative framework has been developed by industry and researchers worldwide to solve this problem through the formation of the BiCEP (Biological Control of Insect Pests) Alliance. BiCEP is targeting research in Australia and overseas on major pests (e.g. Gonipterus scutellatus complex, Glycaspis brimblecombei) prioritised by its industry partners. Results/Conclusion: Early conclusions from this approach, practical outcomes from current research, and future directions and improvements will be discussed.

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The Mediterranean climate zone in North America is restricted to the states of California in the USA and parts of Baha California Norte in Mexico. As described in other chapters in this volume, the climate is characterized by cool wet winters and hot dry summer conditions. The greatest amount of precipitation falls in the late fall and winter months. The remainder of the year is dry. Eucalypts were introduced from Australia as seed in the mid nineteenth century and have been widely planted in California. Although there have been a few rare reports of occasional host use, no native insect species have undergone a host shift onto the trees. Until the mid 1980s there were only two exotic insects that feed on eucalypts introduced from Australia to California. In a 20 year period beginning in 1984, 16 exotic insects from four feeding guilds established in the state. Three of these insects are under complete biological control [the blue gum psyllid (Ctenerytinae eucalypti (Maskell)), the eucalyptys longhorned borer (Phoracantha semipunctata F), and the eucalyptus snout weevil (Gonipterus scutellatus Gyll.)] are under complete biological control. Several more [the red gum lerp psyllid (Glycaspsis brimblecombei Moore), the lemon gum psyllid (Cryptoneossa triangular Taylor), the spotted gum psyllid (Eucalytolyma maideni Froggatt), and, possibly, a second longhorned borer (Phoracantha recurva Newman)] are under partial biological control. The introductions have continued since 2004, but at a much slower pace than the previous 20 years. Although there have been differences in the patterns of introductions of insects that feed on eucalypts in different Mediterranean climates zones, the community of insects is becoming homogenized as movement of people and goods continues to spread the insects into new areas. The management approaches developed in one part of the Mediterranean world will find broader applications in other parts of that world as the movement of invasive arthropods continues.

A population of Gonipterus scutellatus sensu lato (Coleoptera Curculionidae), a pest of Eucalyptus spp., was found on February 2011, for the first time in Tuscany, in the Integral Natural Reserve of Montecristo Island (Central Italy) as the possible result of a late 19thcentury introduction on eucalyptus trees from Australia.Riassunto - Gonipterus scutellatus s. l. nell’isola di Montecristo (Toscana): il suo arrivo nella regione Paleartica dovrebbe essere retrodatato al XIX secolo? (Coleoptera Curculionidae). Gonipterus scutellatus s. l. (Coleoptera Curculionidae), un insetto dannoso per varie specie di Eucalyptus, è stato trovato, per la prima volta in Toscana, nel Febbraio 2011, nella Riserva Naturale Statale Integrale di Montecristo, isola del Parco Nazionale dell’Arcipelago Toscano. L’introduzione di questa specie potrebbe risalire alla fine del XIX secolo, con l’importazione di piante di Eucalyptus direttamente dall’Australia.

The Eucalyptus Weevil, generally referred to as Gonipterus scutellatus Gyllenhal, 1833 is a significant pest of Eucalyptus species in Africa, America, Europe and New Zealand. It has recently become a pest of Eucalyptus globulus plantations in Western Australia, despite the presence there of the mymarid egg-parasitoid Anaphes nitens (Girault). Recent taxonomic study has indicated G. scutellatus to comprise a complex of cryptic species, obscuring the identity of the various pest populations of the weevil in the world. We examined (1) whether the apparent cryptic species identifiable on genital differences have a genetic basis; (2) the distribution of these species; and (3) the origin of the population in Western Australia. We studied specimens from across the distribution range of Eucalyptus Weevil in Australia and obtained sequences of three genes from them: cytochrome oxidase I mtDNA, elongation-factor 1-a nuclear DNA and 18s rDNA. The cladogram of COI haplotypes resolved 10 well supported clades fully corresponding with genital-morphologically distinct species, eight of them constituting a monophyletic G. scutellatus complex. Only four of these species proved to be described, as G. balteatus Lea, 1897 G. platensis (Marelli, 1926), G. pulverulentus Lea, 1897 and G. scutellatus Gyllenhal, 1833. The pest species in the world were found to be G. platensis (New Zealand, America, western Europe), G. pul- verulentus (eastern South America) and an undescribed species (Africa, France, Italy). The population of G. platensis in Western Australia showed little genetic variation and is indicated to be a recent introduction from Tasmania. The discrimination of the cryptic species of the G. scutellatus complex enables improvements in the management of the pest species in terms of biological control and plantation practices. Our study highlights the critical importance of proper taxonomic studies under- pinning biocontrol programs.

The eucalyptus snout beetle, Gonipterus scutellatus (Gyllenhal), introduced to South Africa from Australia, causes extensive damage to eucalyptus plantations in colder regions where biological control is less effective. A cytogenetic study was undertaken to assess the weevil's genetic recombination potential and thereby its ability to adapt to changing environmental conditions. During this study we investigated: (i) the sequence of meiosis; (ii) the weevil's karyotype; and (iii) the number and position of chiasmata on the bivalents. Squashes of male testes revealed a normal, chiasmate meiosis, a sex chromosome complement of Xyp and an autosome complement of three large, and two medium-sized, sub-metacentric pairs and seven small acrocentric pairs. The diploid chromosome number (2n = 26) is marginally higher than the ancestral chromosome number of the Curculionidae (2n = 22). Chiasmata were absent from the proximal regions of the bivalents, occurring mostly in the distal regions and less frequently in the ...

Plantations of Eucalyptus globulus in southwestern Australia are defoliated by Eucalyptus weevil, Gonipterus scutellatus , and a complex of chrysomelid and scarab beetles, yet there is no information on the impact of beetle defoliation to tree growth in southwestern Australia. To address this shortcoming, we used insect exclusion trials, to compare growth of insecticide treated (and thus relatively undamaged) trees with untreated (and thus defoliated) trees to determine whether defoliation by G. scutellatus and other beetles reduced the growth and harvest volume of E. globulus trees. Our results showed some evidence of beetle defoliation reducing growth of E. globulus . Mean defoliation levels of the growing tip of untreated trees ranged from 18% to 33% across the duration of the study and were significantly greater than mean defoliation levels of 5–16% on insecticide treated trees. Seasonal peaks in defoliation of 30–80% to the growing tip of untreated trees were recorded between late spring and early autumn. The greatest impact of defoliation on tree growth was evident during the 2.5 year period of insect exclusion, when higher relative growth rates were recorded for insecticide treated trees, which were significantly different from relative growth rates of untreated trees at two of the four plantations. However, our results showed only a limited impact of beetle defoliation on the total volume at harvest. Initially small trees tended to suffer more severe defoliation than initially large trees. Effects of insect exclusion treatment on harvest volume were modified by the initial tree size and the relationship between the initial tree size and levels of defoliation.

Toxicity by contact and by ingestion of lufenuron, flufenoxuron, lambda (λ)-cyhalothrin, cypermethrin, thiamethoxam and five entomopathogenic insecticides (three formulations of Beauveria bassiana, a compound containing spores of Metarhizium anisopliae var. acridum, and a mixture of Brevibacillus laterosporus, Bacillus licheniformis and Bacillus chitinosporus) were evaluated on adults of the Eucalyptus snout-beetle Gonipterus scutellatus Gyllenhal (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) under laboratory conditions. By contact, entomopathogenic fungus B. bassiana EC and the pyrethroid λ-cyhalothrin exhibited the highest efficiency, achieving 100 and 97.5% mortality, respectively. By ingestion, the highest mortality was obtained by B. bassiana EC (100%) and thiamethoxam (95%). Flufenoxuron and lufenuron, bacteria mixture and M. anisopliae showed a weak toxicity. Furthermore, we found a sex-biased mortality, being males more affected. Due to the good performance and low risk to humans and environment, B. bassiana EC (strain PPRI 5339) appears to be the most promising product to promote an IPM programme in South Africa.

The Eucalyptus weevil, Gonipterus scutellatus Gyllenhal, is the most serious pest of established Eucalyptus globulus plantations in southwestern Australia where it may have been introduced from its endemic origin in southeastern Australia. This species has been introduced to many countries but has been brought under successful biological control by the introduction of the egg parasitoid, Anaphes nitens Girault, from southeastern Australia. I investigated whether the elevated pest status of G. scutellatus in southwestern Australia is a result of inadequate biological control by quantifying parasitism rates of the pest. Parasitism rates of G. scutellatus egg masses by A. nitens were very low between late winter and mid spring when most oviposition occurs, and a high percentage of parasitised egg masses at these times were incompletely parasitised. Parasitism rates from late spring onwards approached 100%, but fewer egg masses were laid at these times. Low parasitism rates up to mid spring are likely to be due to low numbers of A. nitens at these times because hosts are not available for half the year. In southwestern Australia G. scutellatus has one principal oviposition period in early spring and a second lesser oviposition period in early summer. This short reproductive period appears to be caused by a scarcity of suitable new flushing foliage after spring that is essential for G. scutellatus reproduction. A. nitens did not emerge from eggs of the closely related weevil Oxyops despite eggs of this species being available at a time when G. scutellatus hosts were largely unavailable. Taxonomic difficulties with Gonipterus and possibly Anaphes may also explain the breakdown of biological control in southwestern Australia, and taxonomic revision of these insect groups must be a future research priority.

We investigated the effects of temperature, photoperiod, food and host availability, and body size on the overwintering abilities of the egg parasitoid Anaphes nitens Girault (Hymenoptera, Mymaridae) under natural conditions. Seven groups of eighty females received one of four treatments (n = 20): (i) honey and hosts, (ii) water and hosts, (iii) honey, or (iv) water. Seven groups of forty males received only honey or water (n = 20). To test if short day-length is the main cue for larval dormancy, the experiment was replicated inside a climate chamber at 20°C and under a winter photoperiod. A. nitens overwinters because of quiescence or oligopause inside the hosts and increased adult longevity. Mean pre-emergence mortality was up to 26% indoors and 15.2% outdoors, males being more affected. Development time had a significant and positive effect on body size. Honey-fed females without hosts had the highest longevity (53 days). Mother’s diet and size affected development time, body size, longevity, and fecundity of the progeny. The results confirm the good adaptation of the parasitoid to the environmental conditions of NW Spain and its ability to synchronize its life cycle with the phenology of the host.

We investigated under outdoor conditions and inside a climate chamber: (i) whether Anaphes nitens Girault (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae), an egg parasitoid of the Eucalyptus snout beetle, Gonipterus scutellatus Gyllenhal (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), experienced egg resorption, and (ii) how various treatments (location, food, and/or host supply) and body size influenced egg load, egg resorption, fecundity, and longevity. One-day-old females were mated and randomly assigned to five groups: (A) honey + hosts, (B) water + hosts, (C) only honey, (D) only water, and (E) control females killed at emergence. We compared the egg load of the newly emerged females, which represent the control group (egg load = ovarian eggs present at emergence), with the lifetime egg load (i.e., ovarian eggs + emerged offspring + not emerged offspring) of the females with various host and diet treatments, by dissection of the ovaries to find evidence of egg resorption. All groups reared outdoors had fewer eggs than the control, while indoors there was no significant difference. Outdoors, starved but hostprovided wasps (B) experienced the highest reduction of the lifetime egg load (51%). Groups without access to food (B + D) resorbed more eggs than groups provided with honey (A + C). Females with honey and hosts (A) had the highest lifetime fecundity, but those with water and hosts (B) showed a higher daily realized fecundity. Host-deprived females with access to food (C) attained the longest lifespan. Our results suggest that under stress conditions, such as low temperature and food shortage, A. nitens females practice egg resorption, probably to save energy.

In this study, the effects of maternal age, diet, and size on offspring sex ratio were investigated for the solitary egg parasitoid, Anaphes nitens Girault (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae), both outdoors, during the winter, and inside a climatic chamber under favourable constant conditions. During the winter of 2005-2006, each of seven groups containing 40 1-day-old females was mated and randomly distributed among two treatments: (treatment 1) a droplet of undiluted honey ad libitum + one fresh egg capsule of the snout beetle Gonipterus scutellatus Gyllenhal (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) as host; (treatment 2) drops of water + one fresh egg capsule of G. scutellatus. We recorded the lifetime fecundity, the daily sex allocation, and the lifetime offspring sex ratio to study the existence of a relationship with maternal characteristics. Moreover, we assessed the effect of location (outdoors vs. indoors) and group (groups are representative of early, mid, and late winter) on sex ratio. The most important factor that biased the sex ratio was maternal body size: larger females of both treatments produced more female offspring. As females of A. nitens could gain more advantage than males from body size, larger mothers have a higher fitness return if they produce more daughters. The effect of the treatment was significant: starved females produced more females. Location and group were not significant. Fecundity and sex ratio were age dependent. Old mothers that received honey (treatment 1) had fewer offspring and a more male-biased offspring sex ratio, probably due to reproductive senescence and sperm depletion. Starved females (treatment 2) experienced reproductive decline earlier, perhaps because they invested more energy in maintenance rather than in reproduction.

Gonipterus scutellatus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) is a pest of eucalyptus in Chile. Susceptibility of Eucalyptus camaldulensis, E. globulus ssp. globulus, and E. robusta to larval feeding were studied by determining foliar area loss. The effect of feeding on larval protein profiles was analysed by electrophoresis. E. camaldulensis was more susceptible (11.21% foliar area consumed) than E. globulus (6.47%) and E. robusta (3.62%). Nineteen proteins were common in larvae fed the three kinds of food, whereas 11 exhibited variations (marker proteins). As all larvae came from E. globulus providing the same nutrition, relatively few (20) proteins were detected in them. More proteins (30) were found in larvae feeding on E. robusta. The greatest number of marker proteins occurred in E. robusta (11), followed by E. camaldulensis (9), and E. globulus (1). Thus, larvae fed on three eucalyptus species had three different protein profiles.

An experimental study to assess the effect of the sequence wildfire–clearfelling–coppice sprout selection–foliar damage caused by a defoliating beetle (Gonipterus scutellatus Gill.) on seasonal water yield in an Eucalyptus globulus Labill. watershed was carried out in Galicia (NW Spain) from 1987 to 2005. The effect on water yield of a sequence as described in this investigation had not been evaluated till now. A summer wildfire in 1989 caused a mean increase in annual streamflow of 68%, compared with the expected value, during the first three post-fire years. After a clearfelling in 1992 a mean increase of 73% in the annual streamwater was measured for the three following years. A mean increase of 47% in streamflow was observed in the three years after coppice sprout selection in 1995. No effect in streamflow was detected the fourth year after this forestry operation. Finally, a G. scutellatus pest attack resulted in a significant average increase in annual streamwater of 22% from 1999–2000 to 2004–2005. The seasonal deviations (observed minus predicted values) in streamwater during the study period were significantly correlated with precipitation and its seasonality that explained 70% of variation in water yield deviations. Most of significant deviations were measured in autumn and winter. In no case was an increase in water availability observed during summer. No evidence of cumulative effect of those successive perturbations was found. The results presented here could help to evaluate the hydrological consequences of current intensive forest management and frequent perturbations that are affecting E. globulus stands in NW Spain. They might also be used by forest managers to understand the relationship between forest cover and water yield in the context of climate change and reduced rainfall.

Laboratory experiments and field surveys were carried out to study the thermal requirements and phenology of the Eucalyptus snout beetle Gonipterus scutellatus (Curculionidae) and its parasitoid, Anaphes nitens (Mymaridae). Developmental times were recorded for G. scutellatus life stages: egg to first instar larva, first instar to pre-pupal larva, prepupae to adults and the complete life cycle. Experiments were performed in temperature-controlled chambers maintained at 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30°C with a photoperiod of 11 : 13 h of light : darkness and 50–60% RH. To calculate the minimum threshold temperature of the parasitoid, parasitized egg capsules were kept under similar conditions. During 1998 and 1999 we studied the phenology and the day-degree (DD) accumulation of G. scutellatus and its parasitoid in plots of Eucalyptus globulus at six different sites in NW Spain. Every 2 weeks, the numbers of snout beetle adults and egg capsules were counted in each plot. The rate of parasitism was estimated by collecting 90 egg capsules from each plot on each sampling date. We recorded the temperatures in each plot to test whether differences in temperature alone could account for the phenology of this snout beetle. To complete a full life cycle from egg to adult, the weevil required a mean of 1119.83 ± 20.59 DD above a base temperature of 6.11°C. The parasitoid had a base temperature of 5.09°C and needed 318.16 DD to complete a life cycle. Our model indicated that three generations of snout beetle could develop each year, corresponding to peaks of snout beetle numbers in the field in March–April, June–July and November. In some years only one generation of G. scutellatus was recorded due probably to the effectiveness of the parasitoid. Differences in numbers of adults and egg capsule were recorded between neighbouring ‘coastal plots’ and between neighbouring ‘inland plots’. Hence, climate alone does not appear to explain the phenology of G. scutellatus.

We undertook a study to test the hypothesis that fertiliser application would moderate the effects of insect herbivory on stem growth of plantation-grown Eucalyptus globulus Labill. Three-year-old E. globulus with damage from the Eucalypt weevil ( Gonipterus scutellatus ) ranging from 0–50% loss of total crown leaf area were fertilised with either nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) or the combination of N + P. Stem growth and crown condition were monitored for 12 months. Applications of N or N + P increased diameter and height increment for both treatments, suggesting nutrient limitations at the site. In the absence of fertiliser, diameter and height increment were significantly reduced when defoliation was more than 10%. The application of N + P or N alone increased diameter increment in all defoliation classes to at least the level of unfertilised trees with minimal defoliation. Application of P did not. While there was an overall improvement in crown condition over the experimental period, trees in the N only treatment displayed a greater improvement in crown condition, and less trees per plot had poorer crown condition, than did trees in the other treatments. It was concluded that fertilising with N offers a management tool to eucalypt growers concerned with loss of productivity following insect defoliation.

1 In south-western Australia, Eucalyptus globulus plantations are defoliated by a complex of beetle species, yet only scant information exists on these species under such climatic conditions. To improve management of these defoliating beetles in the region, canopy fogging and shoot clipping were conducted in plantations between 1999 and 2002 to identify and document the phenology of the beetle species present. 2 Eucalyptus weevil, Gonipterus scutellatus, was the most common and destructive defoliating beetle. Gonipterus scutellatus undergoes one principal generation each year with a lesser second generation or cohort in some seasons, which contrasts greatly with reports of two to four annual generations for the species in other regions. This limited reproduction by G. scutellatus may be due to the limited availability from summer onwards of new flushing foliage, which is essential for feeding and oviposition. 3 Several species of chrysomelid beetles were collected in plantations, but these were present in much lower numbers than G. scutellatus and were only a minor concern. However, some species, such as Chrysophtharta variicollis, appear to be capable of developing short-lived outbreaks. 4 A diverse suite of natural enemies was fogged from plantations but they were significantly less abundant than defoliating beetles and are not likely to provide significant control of beetles. 5 In terms of managing these defoliating beetles, monitoring and control should focus on G. scutellatus, and be conducted during spring when most damage occurs.

Alpha-cypermethrin is widely used in Australian forestry to control defoliating beetle pests but no information exists on its efficacy against beetle pests or impacts on non-target arthropods. To address this deficiency I quantified the short-term impacts of single commercial applications of the insecticide alpha-cypermethrin on populations of both defoliating beetle pests and beneficial arthropods over 12 months in two southwestern Australian eucalypt plantations. A single application of alpha-cypermethrin (24 g a.i./ha) in October or November reduced beetle pest populations to near zero levels. Beetle recovery began immediately after spraying but high populations of eucalyptus weevil and chrysomelid beetles, and high defoliation levels did not eventuate until 10–12 months later. Despite the success of alpha-cypermethrin in controlling defoliating beetle pests, the broad-spectrum nature of the insecticide led to nearly complete mortality of all beneficial arthropods immediately after spraying. Spiders were the main group of beneficial arthropods present after spraying probably because some individuals occupy a concealed and protected habitat. Populations of Anaphes nitens (Girault), the important eucalyptus weevil egg parasitoid, also partly survived the spray because they were protected within weevil egg masses. Post-spray recovery of both beetle pests and beneficial arthropods occurred gradually in the following 12 months, presumably through immigration from outside the plantation.

The egg parasitoid Anaphes nitens (Girault) was successfully introduced into South Africa in 1926 to control the Eucalyptus snout beetle, Gonipterus scutellatus Gyllenhal. However, outbreaks of the beetle on the Highveld in the 1980s questioned the efficacy of the parasitoid as a biological control agent and a programme was instituted to determine its present status. This study represents the Western Cape programme where 20 host egg-capsules were collected at fortnightly intervals for five years from three localities and the percentage parasitism was recorded. The mean parasitism rate varied between Cape Town (76%), George (82%), and Grabouw (89%). The highest parasitism occurred in spring (October) at Cape Town (96%) and (September) Grabouw (92%); and in autumn (May) at George (78%), coinciding with that of maximum host egg production, which in turn was dependent on the availability of fresh foliage. More host eggs were present in Cape Town (42%) than at either George (30%) or Grabouw (28%). Parasitism o...

We examined the potential of forest plantations to support communities of forest-using insects when planted into an area with greatly reduced native forest cover. We surveyed the insect fauna of Eucalyptus globulus (Myrtaceae) plantations and native Eucalyptus marginata dominated remnant woodland in south-western Australia, comparing edge to interior habitats, and plantations surrounded by a pastoral matrix to plantations adjacent to native remnants. We also surveyed insects in open pasture. Analyses focused on three major insect orders: Coleoptera, Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera. Plantations were found to support many forest-using insect species, but the fauna had an overall composition that was distinct from the remnant forest. The pasture fauna had more in common with plantations than forest remnants. Insect communities of plantations were different from native forest both because fewer insect species were present, and because they had a few more abundant insect species. Some of the dominant species in plantations were known forestry pests. One pest species (Gonipterus scutellatus) was also very abundant in remnant forest, although it was only recently first recorded in Western Australia. It may be that plantation forestry provided an ecological bridge that facilitated invasion of the native forest by this nonendemic pest species. Plantation communities had more leaf-feeding moths and beetles than remnant forests. Plantations also had fewer ants, bees, evanioid wasps and predatory canopy beetles than remnants, but predatory beetles were more common in the understory of plantations than remnants. Use of broad spectrum insecticides in plantations might limit the ability of these natural enemies to regulate herbivore populations. There were only weak indications of differences in composition of the fauna at habitat edges and no consistent differences between the fauna of plantations adjacent to remnant vegetation and those surrounded by agriculture, suggesting that there is little scope for managing biodiversity outcomes by choosing different edge to interior ratios or by locating plantations near or far from remnants.

We investigated, by means of topical, residual and field assays, the toxicity of four insecticides (Bacillus thuringiensis, azadirachtin, flufenoxuron and ethofenprox) to adult, larvae and eggs of the Eucalyptus snout-beetle Gonipterus scutellatus and their side-effects on the adults of the solitary egg parasitoid Anaphes nitens, its natural enemy. In the topical toxicity experiment, both flufenoxuron and ethofenprox severely affected G. scutellatus, causing 100% adult mortality after 7 days, and 75 and 100% larval mortality, respectively. Ethofenprox also caused 93% larval pre-eclosion mortality and 100% parasitoid mortality. In the residual experiment, azadirachtin acted as an effective larvicide when ingested (73% mortality after 7 days). Ethofenprox showed the highest toxicity, with 100% mortality of adults and larvae of G. scutellatus after 24 h. On the day 7 of observation, flufenoxuron resulted in 93% adult mortality and 100% larval mortality. After contact with residuals, only ethofenprox and flufenoxuron had adversely affected A. nitens (98% mortality after 48 h). Bacillus thuringiensis exhibited only a slight activity against the pest or the parasitoid. The field experiment was carried out on three localities, with a preliminary sampling, and three samplings after the applications of the products, on days 7, 14 and 30. We evaluated the parasitism rate, parasitoid sex ratio, parasitoid pre-eclosion mortality, the abundance of G. scutellatus adults, larvae and egg capsules, the pre-eclosion mortality rate of weevil eggs and larvae and the foliar damage. Only fluenoxuron and ethofenprox reduced the pest population and the foliar damages, but ethofenprox also significantly decreased the rate of parasitism (17%) after 7 days. Given our experimental results, we suggest that flufenoxuron and azadirachtin could be used in association with the natural enemy.

We investigated host finding and host discrimination ability in Anaphes nitens, a solitary egg parasitoid that attacks a gregarious host, the egg capsules of the Eucalyptus snout-beetle, Gonipterus scutellatus. In a first experiment, females were assigned to three treatments: no experience, one experience on an unparasitized egg capsule or one experience on a parasitized egg capsule. We combined this variable with three types of hosts: unparasitized, previously parasitized by the experimental female, or parasitized by conspecifics. Females were observed in a no-choice test, and results indicate that: (1) naive females can discriminate but do not refrain from superparasitism, (2) previous experience and the type of egg capsule affect host acceptance and visit duration, and (3) there is no evidence of self-discrimination. The acceptance of parasitized hosts decreased from 90% for the inexperienced females at their first encounter with the host, to 45% for the experienced females, and visit duration from 17.2 to 9.2 min. In a second experiment, a choice test was performed to assess A. nitens preference towards hosts of different age. Females oviposited preferentially in very young hosts. A field experiment tested the ability to find new hosts within the window of vulnerability of the egg capsules, by manipulation of the time that hosts were exposed to parasitism. Results showed that parasitoids need one day to discover the hosts and that parasitism does not increase after three days. We conclude that A. nitens biocontrol success is due to its ability to find fresh hosts, and to its discrimination ability, even if the female is inexperienced. 2003 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Mating in Gonipterus scutellatus is very long and lasts on average 6.98 ± 0.49 hr. This could be interpreted as a mechanism of male guarding, but males neither increase copulation duration nor ejaculate volume when sperm competition risk increases. We studied paternity patterns using RAPDs, and the influence of multiple matings on fertility, fecundity and sperm supply. Using twicemated females, we compared the percentage of polymorphic bands shared between first male/offspring, second male/offspring, mother/offspring, unrelated adults (males). In agreement with a previous study on paternity with the sterilemale technique, we found that sperm mixing seems the prevalent sperm competition mechanism. In a second experiment, adults were randomly assigned to three treatments: females mated only once; females allowed to mate ad libitum with one male; and females that could mate with seven different males. Females of the last group showed a significant increase in fertility. Additionally, we compared the stored s...

Damage caused by the eucalypt snout weevil Gonipterus scutellatus Gyllenhal (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) (= G. gibberus Boisduval) was found on a greater proportion of F 1 Eucalyptus amygdalina Labill. E. risdonii J. D. Hook. hybrid trees than either of the pure species, in a replicated field trial in south-east Tasmania. A greater proportion of E. risdonii trees was also damaged than E. amygdalina trees. A study of the pattern of oviposition within the trial revealed no difference in oviposition by G. scutellatus between E. risdonii and E. amygdalina . Oviposition by G. scutellatus was significantly higher on the F 1 and F 2 interspecific hybrids between these two eucalypt species compared with pure species crosses. There were no apparent differences in damage or oviposition levels between the F 1 hybrids and the single large F 2 progeny included in the trial. This finding provides little evidence that hybrid susceptibility is due to hybrid breakdown after the first generation. Rather, the evidence is consistent with the hypothesis that there may be different mechanisms of host defence operating in each species that are somehow diluted below a threshold level in the hybrids.

We studied egg production and the occurrence of adaptive superparasitism in Anaphes nitens , an egg parasitoid of the Eucalyptus snout beetle Gonipterus scutellatus . First, we determined whether A. nitens females were synovigenic or pro-ovigenic. Newly emerged females were allowed to lay eggs alone during 3 days on six fresh egg capsules. A first group of females (n = 25) were killed by freezing and the remaining females (n = 21) were maintained during two extra days with food, but without hosts. Their fecundity was measured by dissection of host eggs and females’ ovarioles. We found that the second group of females increased their fecundity by about 20%, suggesting they were weakly synovigenic. To test for the occurrence of adaptive superparasitism in relation to competitors’ density, we compared the oviposition behaviour of females kept alone, in pairs, or in groups of four during patch visit. Results indicated that the females superparasited significantly more often in this last treatment. Synovigeny and the ability to modulate the use of superparasitism could be mentioned as important attributes that allow A. nitens to efficiently control the pest population.

Species numbers and composition of the insect fauna occurring on trees and shrubs were studied in dry eucalypt forests in eastern Tasmania over nine years. In all, 1164 named and putative species representing 17 orders and 157 families were collected. The bulk of the species belonged to the orders Coleoptera (28%), Hymenoptera (25%), Hemiptera (18%), Lepidoptera (14%) and Diptera (10%). Of the species collected, 388 -- about one-third -- were identified at least to genus or species level. These included 21 named species not previously listed in the Tasmanian insect fauna and 90 undescribed species. A list of 22 host plants for 171 insect species was compiled from records of 132 insect species observed feeding during the study and from previous records ofinsect/host plant associations for 39 insect species found on the study plots. Most insects were feeding on eucalypts (127 insect species) and acacias (38 species). The most widely distributed and commonly collected species were several well-known pests of eucalypts: Gonipterus scutellatus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), Uraba lugens (Lepidoptera: N octuidae), Amorbus obscuricornis (Hemiptera: Coreidae), Chaetophyes compacta (Hemiptera: Machaerotidae) and Eriococcus coriaceous(Hemiptera: Eriococcidae). Host plants supporting the richest insect fauna were Eucalyptus amygdalina (74 species), E. obliqua (64), E. viminalis (46), Acacia dealbata (35), E. dalrympleana (33), E. sieberi (31), E. delegatensis (30), E. pulchella (24) and E. globulus (19). The broad-striped ghost moth, Fraus latistria Walker (Lepidoptera: Hepialidae), was collected during the study. This species is classified as 'rare' on the list of Tasmania's threatened fauna and the collection established a new locality record.

Since the 1860s, Australian insects have steadily colonized eucalypts in New Zealand. The rate of colonization has increased markedly over the last two decades. This increase may be related to increasing trade between the two countries. Currently there are 26 specialist eucalypt insect species and approximately 31 polyphagous insect species that can feed on Eucalyptus in New Zealand. The specialist eucalypt insects endemic to Australia have generally caused more damage than polyphagous or native insects. Eucalypt-specific insects are dominated by sap sucking bugs, particularly psyllids, and defoliating Coleoptera and Lepidoptera. In some cases the major insect pest species have been those that are only occasional pests in Australia, for example Gonipterus scutellatus, Ctenarytaina eucalypti, Eriococcus coriaceus and Phylacteophaga froggatti. Some important insect pests have been rare, or even not described from Australia, prior to their appearance as a pest in New Zealand, for example Paropsis charybdis and Ophelimus eucalypti. Invading eucalypt insects are more likely to establish in the Auckland region than anywhere else in New Zealand.

Chile has more than 330 000 ha of eucalypt plantations, predominantly in the eighth to the tenth region (approximately 34 to 41°S). Eucalyptus globulus ssp. globulus is the principal eucalypt planted, but Eucalyptus nitens, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Eucalyptus delegatensis and Eucalyptus viminalis are also grown. There are four main insect pests that have been detected attacking these eucalypts in Chile: the defoliator Gonipterus scutellatus, the bark borers Phoracantha semipunctata and Phoracantha recurva and the native wood borer Chilecomadia valdiviana. More recently, Thyrinteina arnobia and Ctenarytaina eucalypti have been detected. Gonipterus scutellatus and P. recurva have been discovered in Chile within the last 2 years and it is hoped they may still be eliminated using a combination of biological control and chemical control of local populations. Phoracantha recurva and P. semipunctata are not considered a problem because attack only occurs in areas of water deficit, away from current eucalypt plantations. Chilecomadia valdiviana can damage plantations of E. nitens but rarely attacks other eucalypts. Chilecomadia valdiviana may cause future problems through further host shifts. Thyrinteina arnobia has only been detected during quarantine surveillance in the port of Valparaiso. Ctenarytaina eucalypti, recently detected in August 1999, had an initial limited distribution in the first region. However, since then, this insect has expanded its distribution south up to the tenth region. None of the insects recorded on eucalypts in Chile to date currently presents a threat to the eucalypt industry. It is also essential that additional resources are made available for their continued monitoring and control, particularly given that the 44% of plantations are held by small to medium property owners that would otherwise be unable to control a serious outbreak because of economic restrictions.

Quarantine colonies of the melaleuca snout beetle Oxyops vitiosa, the first melaleuca-feeding insect released in Florida, consisted of individuals collected from the Burpengary region (near Brisbane) of Queensland and their descendants. Constraints on the number of weevils available at this site motivated us to import weevils from a second site (Bundaberg). While individuals from the two sites could not be differentiated using taxonomic characters, the weevils from Bundaberg were consistently larger. This prompted concern that Bundaberg individuals might differ genetically from the quarantine population thus confounding the original host specificity studies. In a worse case scenario, the Bundaberg population might represent a separate sub-species or even a separate (cryptic) species. RAPD analysis was conducted on individuals from the two sites and on an outlier species, Gonipterus scutellatus. Neighbor Joining analysis clearly delineated the two species and also indicated some differentiation of individuals from the two O. vitiosa sites. Bootstrap analysis, however, indicated little statistical support for this intraspecific differentiation. Principal Coordinate analysis distinguished individuals from the two populations, and even distinguished two sub-populations from Bundaberg. AMOVA analysis indicated most of the variation occurred within populations but that the between population variance was significant. We conclude that further limited specificity testing and field host range observations should be conducted on the Bundaberg population before release into Florida.