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Food security is a problem of global importance, therefore, the methods and techniques for assessing it at the macroeconomic level are the most important components of the scientific study of the economies of countries. The paper provides a comparative analysis of aggregated indicators of food security in the Russian Federation with international established systems, assesses their advantages and disadvantages, as well as areas for improving the system in the Russian economy. Based on a statistical analysis of the global food security index covering 112 countries, generalizing conclusions are drawn about the importance of factors in the formation of food security at the present time, as well as about alarming trends in the world that require a timely solution at the level of a civilized world community.

In Russia, during the COVID-19 pandemic, a decrease in influenza circulation was initially observed. Influenza circulation re-emerged with the dominance of new clades of A(H3N2) viruses in 2021-2022 and A(H1N1)pdm09 viruses in 2022-2023. In this study, we aimed to characterize influenza viruses during the 2022-2023 season in Russia, as well as investigate A(H1N1)pdm09 HA-D222G/N polymorphism associated with increased disease severity. PCR testing of 780 clinical specimens showed 72.2% of them to be positive for A(H1N1)pdm09, 2.8% for A(H3N2), and 25% for influenza B viruses. The majority of A(H1N1)pdm09 viruses analyzed belonged to the newly emerged 6B.1A.5a.2a clade. The intra-sample predominance of HA-D222G/N virus variants was observed in 29% of the specimens from A(H1N1)pdm09 fatal cases. The D222N polymorphic variant was registered more frequently than D222G. All the B/Victoria viruses analyzed belonged to the V1A.3a.2 clade. Several identified A(H3N2) viruses belonged to one of the four subclades (2a.1b, 2a.3a.1, 2a.3b, 2b) within the 3C.2a1b.2a.2 group. The majority of antigenically characterized viruses bore similarities to the corresponding 2022-2023 NH vaccine strains. Only one influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 virus showed reduced inhibition by neuraminidase inhibitors. None of the influenza viruses analyzed had genetic markers of reduced susceptibility to baloxavir.

The circulation of seasonal influenza in 2020-2021 around the world was drastically reduced after the start of the COVID-19 pandemic and the implementation of mitigation strategies. The influenza virus circulation reemerged in 2021-2022 with the global spread of the new genetic clade 3C.2a1b.2a.2 of A(H3N2) viruses. The purpose of this study was to characterize influenza viruses in the 2021-2022 season in Russia and to analyze the receptor specificity properties of the 3C.2a1b.2a.2 A(H3N2) viruses. Clinical influenza samples were collected at the local Sanitary-and-Epidemiological Centers of Rospotrebnadzor. Whole genome sequencing was performed using NGS. The receptor specificity of hemagglutinin was evaluated using molecular modeling and bio-layer interferometry. Clinical samples from 854 cases of influenza A and B were studied; A(H3N2) viruses were in the majority of the samples. All genetically studied A(H3N2) viruses belonged to the new genetic clade 3C.2a1b.2a.2. Molecular modeling analysis suggested a higher affinity of hemagglutinin of 3C.2a1b.2a.2. A(H3N2) viruses to the α2,6 human receptor. In vitro analysis using a trisaccharide 6'-Sialyl-N-acetyllactosamine receptor analog did not resolve the differences in the receptor specificity of 3C.2a1b.2a.2 clade viruses from viruses belonging to the 3C.2a1b.2a.1 clade. Further investigation of the A(H3N2) viruses is required for the evaluation of their possible adaptive advantages. Constant monitoring and characterization of influenza are critical for epidemiological analysis.

This study aimed to assess the antiviral susceptibility of influenza A(H5N8) viruses isolated in Russia in 2014-2018. Genetic analysis of 57 Russian isolates with full genome sequences did not find any markers of reduced susceptibility to baloxavir. Only one strain bore an amino acid substitution associated with adamantane resistance (M2-S31N). The neuraminidase of 1 strain had an NA-N293/294S (N8/N2 numbering) substitution associated with reduced inhibition by oseltamivir and normal inhibition by zanamivir, which was confirmed phenotypically. There were no other strains with reduced inhibition by oseltamivir and zanamivir in the phenotypic analysis. In order to estimate the worldwide prevalence of influenza A(H5N8) viruses bearing genetic markers of antiviral resistance, genome sequences deposited in the GISAID database were analyzed (database access: October 2020). The M2 protein of A(H5N8) viruses from the 2.3.4.4c clade had an M2-S31N substitution associated with reduced susceptibility to adamantanes. On the contrary, the majority (94%) of viruses from the 2.3.4.4b clade had the M2-S31 genotype. Fewer than 1% of analyzed viruses had amino acid substitutions associated with reduced susceptibility to baloxavir (PA-E199G, PA-E199E/G) or reduced or highly reduced inhibition by neuraminidase inhibitors (NA-R150/152K, NA-I221/222M, NA-I221/222I/M, NA-I221/222V, NA-I115/117V, NA-G145/147R, NA-R291/292R/K). An NA-N293/294S substitution was not present in sequences from the GISAID database. To the best of our knowledge, influenza A(H5N8) viruses with reduced inhibition by oseltamivir bearing an NA-N293/294S substitution have not been previously reported in epidemiological surveillance studies., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Outbreaks of influenza, which is a contagious respiratory disease, occur throughout the world annually, affecting millions of people with many fatal cases. The D222G/N mutations in the hemagglutinin (HA) gene of A(H1N1)pdm09 are associated with severe and fatal human influenza cases. These mutations lead to increased virus replication in the lower respiratory tract (LRT) and may result in life-threatening pneumonia. Targeted NGS analysis revealed the presence of mutations in major and minor variants in 57% of fatal cases, with the proportion of viral variants with mutations varying from 1% to 98% in each individual sample in the epidemic season 2018-2019 in Russia. Co-occurrence of the mutations D222G and D222N was detected in a substantial number of the studied fatal cases (41%). The D222G/N mutations were detected at a low frequency (less than 1%) in the rest of the studied samples from fatal and nonfatal cases of influenza. The presence of HA D222Y/V/A mutations was detected in a few fatal cases. The high rate of occurrence of HA D222G/N mutations in A(H1N1)pdm09 viruses, their increased ability to replicate in the LRT and their association with fatal outcomes points to the importance of monitoring the mutations in circulating A(H1N1)pdm09 viruses for the evaluation of their epidemiological significance and for the consideration of disease prevention and treatment options., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Data obtained from monitoring cases of severe influenza, cases of vaccinated individuals, and unique cases were used to describe influenza viruses that circulated in Russia in the 2018-2019 epidemic season. A high proportion of the mutations D222G/N in A(H1N1)pdm09 HA was detected in fatal cases. Viruses of the B/Victoria lineage with deletions in HA were detected in Russia, and a reassortant seasonal influenza A(H1N2) virus was identified. A C-terminal truncation in the NS1 protein was detected in a substantial proportion of A(H3N2) viruses.

Neuraminidase (NA) thermostability of influenza A and B viruses isolated from birds, swine and humans was measured to evaluate its variability associated with host body temperature. The highest 50% inactivation temperature (IT 50 ) was observed with H3N8 avian influenza virus (74 °C), and the lowest IT 50 was observed with the seasonal human H3N2 virus (45.5 °C). The IT 50 values of A(H1N1)pdm09 viruses 56.4-58.5 °C were statistically higher than that of the prepandemic strain A/Solomon Islands/03/06 (52.5 °C). An analysis of Ca 2+ binding sites revealed the correspondence of amino acid changes to NA thermostability. This study demonstrates that changes in NA thermostability correspond to differences in host body temperature.

The 2017-2018 influenza epidemic season in Russia was characterized by a relatively low morbidity and mortality. We evaluated herd immunity prior to the 2017-2018 influenza season in hemagglutination inhibition assay, and performed characterization of influenza viruses isolated from severe or fatal influenza cases and from influenza cases in people vaccinated in the fall of 2017. During the 2017-2018 epidemic season, 87 influenza A and B viruses were isolated and viruses of the 75 influenza cases, including selected viral isolates and viruses analyzed directly from the original clinical material, were genetically characterized. The analyzed A(H1N1)pdm09 viruses belonged to clade 6B.1, B/Yamagata-like viruses belonged to clade 3, and B/Victoria-like viruses belonged to clade 1A and they were antigenically similar to the corresponding vaccine strains. A(H3N2) viruses belonged to clade 3C.2a and were difficult to characterize antigenically and the analysis indicated antigenic differences from the corresponding egg-grown vaccine strain. The next generation sequencing revealed the presence of D222/G/N polymorphism in the hemagglutinin gene in 32% of the analyzed A(H1N1)pdm09 lethal cases. This study demonstrated the importance of monitoring D222G/N polymorphism, including detection of minor viral variants with the mutations, in the hemagglutinin gene of A(H1N1)pdm09 for epidemiological surveillance. One strain of influenza virus A(H1N1)pdm09 was resistant to oseltamivir and had the H275Y amino acid substitution in the NA protein. All other isolates were susceptible to NA inhibitors. Prior to the 2017-2018 epidemic season, 67.4 million people were vaccinated, which accounted for 46.6% of the country's population. Just before the epidemic season 33-47% and 24-30% of blood sera samples collected within the territory of Russia showed the presence of protective antibody titers against vaccine strains of influenza A and influenza B/Victoria-like, respectively. Mass vaccination of the population had evidently reduced the severity of the flu epidemic during the 2017-2018 influenza epidemic season in Russia., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Cyclamen europaeum tubers extract (CTE) with concentration commonly used for human rhinosinusitis treatment was tested as mucosal adjuvant in experimental intranasal immunization of guinea pigs with concentrated commercially available influenza trivalent vaccine and subsequent infection with influenza strain A/California/04/2009 H1N1pdm. Dual intranasal immunization with vaccine compound consisting of 7.5 µg of each hemagglutinin and 500 µg of CTE in 50 µl induced reciprocal GMT on day 21 after immunization 40 (5-640) against H1N1pdm; 43.20 (5-1280) against H3N2; 10.80 (5-80) against influenza B. Animals with HI titers 1/80 against cell-derived antigen were completely protected against challenge with A/California/04/2009 H1N1pdm09.

This work aimed to analyze the herd immunity to influenza among a Russian population living in regions with an increased risk of emergence of viruses with pandemic potential, and to isolate and investigate virus strains from severe influenza cases, including fatal cases, during the 2016-2017 epidemic season. In November 2016 - March 2017 highly pathogenic influenza outbreaks were registered in Russia among wild birds and poultry. No cases of human infection were registered. Analysis of 760 sera from people who had contact with infected or perished birds revealed the presence of antibodies to A(H5N1) virus of clade 2.3.2.1c and A(H5N8) virus of clade 2.3.4.4. The 2016-2017 influenza epidemic season in Russia began in weeks 46-47 of 2016 with predominant circulation of influenza A(H3N2) viruses. Strains isolated from severe influenza cases mainly belonged to 3C.2a.2 and 3C.2a.3 genetic groups. Up to the 8th week of 2017 severe influenza cases were often caused by influenza B viruses which belonged to 1A genetic group with antigenic properties similar to B/Brisbane/60/2008. All influenza A and B virus strains isolated in the 2016-2017 epidemic season were sensitive to oseltamivir and zanamivir.

In the spring of 2016, a loss of wild birds was observed during the monitoring of avian influenza virus activity in the Republic of Tyva. That outbreak was caused by influenza H5N8 virus of clade 2.3.4.4. In the fall, viruses of H5N8 clade 2.3.4.4 were propagated in European countries. This paper presents some results of analysis of the virus strains isolated during the spring and fall seasons in 2016 in the Russian Federation. The investigated strains were highly pathogenic for mice, and some of their antigenic and genetic features differed from those of an H5N8 strain that circulated in 2014 in Russia.

In the spring of 2015, avian influenza virus surveillance in Western Siberia resulted in isolation of several influenza H5N1 virus strains. The strains were isolated from several wild bird species. Investigation of biological features of those strains demonstrated their high pathogenicity for mammals. Phylogenetic analysis of the HA gene showed that the strains belong to clade 2.3.2.1c.

In this study, we report the isolation of influenza A(H5N8) virus from a Eurasian wigeon (Anas penelope) in Sakha Republic of the Russian Far East. The strain A/wigeon/Sakha/1/2014 (H5N8) has been shown to be pathogenic for mammals. It is similar to the strains that caused outbreaks in wild birds and poultry in Southeast Asia and Europe in 2014.

The roles of yadA, invA, and psaA genes introduced into the genetic background of the Y. pseudotuberculosis strain possessing the large p VM82 plasmid in virulence and invasion capacity were studied. Isogenic single mutants as well as double and multiple mutants of these genes were constructed and used. LD50 was used as a measure of virulence and the estimation of the ability to invade mammalian cells and the effect of infection on the weight changes of infected mice were used as additional indicators of pathogenicity. It was shown that the YadA had a major effect on the bacterial virulence when compared with the effects of PsaA and InvA. InvA appears to mediate the main pathway of the cellular invasion. YadA is responsible for the weight loss after infection of mice with sublethal doses of Y. pseudotuberculosis. The effects of YadA on virulence and of InvA on bacterial invasion were independent of the expression of the other genes studied. To our knowledge, this study showed for the first time the direct involvement of YadA in the virulence of Y. pseudotuberculosis in mice. Further pathomorphological studies are required to reveal the differences in the pathogenesis of pseudotuberculosis caused by yadA mutants or yadA+ bacteria of Y. pseudotuberculosis.