Search

The 150 grassland plots were located in three study regions in Germany, 50 in each region. The dataset describes the yearly grassland management for each grassland plot using 116 variables. General information includes plot identifier, study region and survey year. Additionally, grassland plot characteristics describe the presence and starting year of drainage and whether arable farming had taken place 25 years before our assessment, i.e. between 1981 and 2006. In each year, the size of the management unit is given which, in some cases, changed slightly across years. Mowing, grazing and fertilisation were systematically surveyed: Mowing is characterised by mowing frequency (i.e. number of cuts per year), dates of cutting and different technical variables, such as type of machine used or usage of conditioner. For grazing, the livestock species and age (e.g. cattle, horse, sheep), the number of animals, stocking density per hectare and total duration of grazing were recorded. As a derived variable, the mean grazing intensity was then calculated by multiplying the livestock units with the duration of grazing per hectare [LSU days/ha]. Different grazing periods during a year, partly involving different herds, were summed up to an annual grazing intensity for each grassland. For fertilisation, information on the type and amount of different types of fertilisers was recorded separately for mineral and organic fertilisers, such as solid farmland manure, slurry and mash from a bioethanol factory. Our fertilisation measures neglect dung dropped by livestock during grazing. For each type of fertiliser, we calculated its total nitrogen content, derived from chemical analyses by the producer or agricultural guidelines (Table 3). All three management types, mowing, fertilisation and grazing, were used to calculate a combined land use intensity index (LUI) which is frequently used to define a measure for the land use intensity. Here, fertilisation is expressed as total nitrogen per hectare [kg N/ha], but does not consider potassium and phosphorus. Information on additional management practices in grasslands was also recorded including levelling, to tear-up matted grass covers, rolling, to remove surface irregularities, seed addition, to close gaps in the sward. Investigating the relationship between human land use and biodiversity is important to understand if and how humans affect it through the way they manage the land and to develop sustainable land use strategies. Quantifying land use (the 'X' in such graphs) can be difficult as humans manage land using a multitude of actions, all of which may affect biodiversity, yet most studies use rather simple measures of land use, for example, by creating land use categories such as conventional vs. organic agriculture. Here, we provide detailed data on grassland management to allow for detailed analyses and the development of land use theory. The raw data have already been used for > 100 papers on the effect of management on biodiversity (e.g. Manning et al. 2015).

Bayesian clustering methods are typically used to identify barriers to gene flow, but they are prone to deduce artificial subdivisions in a study population characterized by an isolation-by-distance pattern (IbD). Here we analysed the landscape genetic structure of a population of wild boars (Sus scrofa) from south-western Germany. Two clustering methods inferred the presence of the same genetic discontinuity. However, the population in question was characterized by a strong IbD pattern. While landscape-resistance modelling failed to identify landscape features that influenced wild boar movement, partial Mantel tests and multiple regression of distance matrices (MRDMs) suggested that the empirically inferred clusters were separated by a genuine barrier. When simulating random lines bisecting the study area, 60% of the unique barriers represented, according to partial Mantel tests and MRDMs, significant obstacles to gene flow. By contrast, the random-lines simulation showed that the boundaries of the inferred empirical clusters corresponded to the most important genetic discontinuity in the study area. Given the degree of habitat fragmentation separating the two empirical partitions, it is likely that the clustering programs correctly identified a barrier to gene flow. The differing results between the work published here and other studies suggest that it will be very difficult to draw general conclusions about habitat permeability in wild boar from individual studies.

Die vorliegende Arbeit konnte im Rahmen des vom Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung (BMBF) geförderten Verbundprojektes „Zukunftsorientierte Waldwirtschaft (1998-2003)“ erstellt werden. Dieses Vorhaben hat die bundesweiten Forderungen und Zielvorstellungen der Landesforstverwaltungen aufgegriffen, die nicht standortsgemäßen, naturfernen und instabilen Nadelbaumreinbestände umzubauen und den Anteil an Mischbeständen in den Forstbetrieben deutlich zu erhöhen. Neben ökonomischen Zielen sollte der Waldumbau vor allem auch ökologische Belange berücksichtigen. Dies wurde durch entsprechende Forschungsschwerpunkte vom BMBF wissenschaftlich begleitet. Die Vogelbeere (Gemeine Eberesche, Sorbus aucuparia L.) ist aufgrund ihrer hohen klimatischen und standörtlichen Anpassungsfähigkeit in den Mittelgebirgslagen Europas eine der häufigsten Nebenbaumarten in Fichtenwaldgesellschaften und künstlichen Fichtenforsten. Mit der vorliegenden Arbeit sollte geprüft werden, wie einzelbaumweise eingemischte Vogelbeeren, welche sich natürlich angesamt haben, frühzeitig in die Behandlung von Fichtenjungbeständen einbezogen werden können. Die Vogelbeere wird somit für eine erhebliche Dauer des Bestandeslebens – mindestens aber bis zum Zeitpunkt ihrer möglichen natürlichen Verjüngung – als ein vitales Bestandesglied im Sinne eines ökologischen Waldumbauverfahrens angesehen. Ziel war dabei die optimale Einzelbaumentwicklung der Vogelbeere hinsichtlich ihrer Dimension und Qualität, vor allem aber ihrer Vitalität. Grundlegend ist durch eine Abfrage in der Forsteinrichtungsdatenbank (FESA) für den Landeswald Sachsens das Flächenpotential an Fichtenjungbeständen bis zum Alter 50 Jahre in den mittleren Lagen erfasst worden, in denen natürlich angesamte und einzelbaumweise eingemischte Vogelbeeren vorkommen. Mit Hilfe einer terrestrischen Inventur wurden die ausgewählten Bestände stichprobenartig aufgesucht und dabei die vorkommenden Vogelbeeren hinsichtlich Dimension, Qualität, Vitalität und Schäden untersucht. Für ein waldbauliches Experiment sind weiterhin Fichtenjungbestände im Alter 16, 19, 26 und 32 Jahre auf Standorten mäßiger Trophie in den mittleren Lagen des sächsischen Forstbezirkes Bärenfels ausgewählt worden. In diesen Beständen wurden einzelbaumweise eingemischte Vogelbeeren unterschiedlicher soziologischer Stellung in den drei Varianten „keine“, „mäßige“ und „starke“ Freistellung gefördert. Die Zuwachsreaktionen verschiedener Baumkompartimente der untersuchten Vogelbeeren wurden in Abhängigkeit der Faktoren Alter, Freistellungsvariante und Konkurrenzsituation analysiert. Für einige Messungen war es notwendig dem Versuchsdesign auch Bäume destruktiv zu entnehmen. Insgesamt wurden ca. 700 ha Fichtenjungbestände erfasst, in denen die Vogelbeere einzelbaumweise in den Oberstand eingemischt war oder als weitere Baumart erwähnt wurde. Das durchschnittliche Mischprozent der Vogelbeere im Oberstand betrug ca. 16%. Die terrestrische Inventur zeigte, dass in den sehr jungen und kleinflächigen Beständen (mit bis zu 4 ha Größe) das Vorkommen der der Vogelbeeren am höchsten ist. Die Bäume sind dort zwar vor allem durch Mehrstämmigkeit (Garbenwuchs) gekennzeichnet, dennoch konnte bei den untersuchten Bäumen überwiegend eine gerade Stammform angesprochen werden. In den älteren Beständen stieg dann der Anteil der einschnürigen Stämme und Gabelungszwiesel, und zunehmend wurde die soziologische Stellung als „beherrscht“ und „unterdrückt“ für die Vogelbeeren angesprochen. Die erfassten Schälschäden fielen entgegen den Erwartungen vergleichsweise gering aus. Merkliche Schälschäden wurden erst in den beiden ältesten Fichtenaltersklassen angesprochen und diese nur als gering eingestuft. Die Einschätzung der Vitalität der Vogelbeeren mit Hilfe des baumartenunabhängigen Kronenanspracheschlüssels nach ROLOFF (2001) ergab in allen betrachteten Fichtenaltersklassen überwiegend eine geschwächte bis merklich geschwächte Vitalität. Die Ergebnisse des waldbaulichen Experimentes zeigten, dass die Wachstumsreaktionen der Vogelbeeren je nach betrachteter Fichtenaltersstufe unterschiedlich sind. Je früher eine Förderung erfolgt, umso stärker sind die Reaktionen des Einzelbaumes. Die freigestellten Bäume reagierten deutlich mit gesteigertem relativem BHD-Zuwachs, wobei die Kategorie „mäßige Freistellung“ am Ende der Beobachtungsperiode tendenziell die höchsten Werte besaß und dieser Zuwachs mit zunehmender Fichtenaltersstufe abnahm. Jahrringanalysen an Stammscheiben von entnommenen Probebäumen zeigten, dass die gesteigerte Zuwachsrate des Dickenwachstums nach 3 Vegetationsperioden wieder nachlässt. Das Höhenwachstum wurde in jeder beobachteten Fichtenaltersstufe und Konkurrenzsituation nicht signifikant durch die angewendeten Maßnahmen beeinflusst. Insgesamt zeichneten sich alle Probebäume durch hohe HD-Werte (im Mittel 138) aus, nur die Vogelbeeren der Fichtenaltersstufe 19 besaßen vergleichsweise stabile Werte unter 100. Die freigestellten Vogelbeeren entwickelten in allen betrachteten Altersstufen deutlich erweiterte Kronenschirmflächen und einen signifikanten Kronenradiuszuwachs. Die Ergebnisse der Gesamtblattmasseschätzungen zeigten für Vogelbeeren der Fichtenaltersstufe 26 deutliche Tendenzen, die belegen, dass geförderte Bäume mehr Blattmasse pro Baum ausgebildet haben als nicht geförderte Bäume. Die Anzahl der fruktifizierenden Bäume stieg von 41 % im Jahr 2001 auf 81 % im Jahr 2003, wobei die Stichprobe im Jahr 2003 um 17 Bäume durch destruktive Beprobungen reduziert gewesen ist. Es zeichnete sich ein Trend zum Anstieg der Fruchttrockenmasse je Vogelbeere in Abhängigkeit von der Freistellungsvariante ab, wobei stärker freigestellte Bäume mehr Fruchtmasse produzierten, als mäßig freigestellte Bäume (p = 0,029). Für einen mittleren Probebaum von ca. 5 cm BHD wurde eine Gesamtfeinwurzelmasse von ca. 202 g (R² = 0,30) und eine maximale horizontale Feinwurzelausbreitung von etwa 8 m ermittelt. Die höchsten mittleren Biomasseanteile an der gesamten oberirdischen Biomasse der Bäume hatte jeweils das Kompartiment „Stamm“, mit Anteilen zwischen 67 und 86 % über alle betrachteten Versuchsvarianten. Darauf folgen bei fast allen Versuchsvarianten die Biomasseanteile der Äste aus der Lichtkrone (ca. 5,5 bis 15,5 %). Die Blattbiomasse nimmt am Gesamtbaum einen verhältnismäßig geringen Anteil ein (zwischen 3,1 und 12,4 % über alle Varianten). Die jüngeren Bäume der Fichtenaltersstufe 16 hatten über alle Versuchsvarianten verhältnismäßig hohe Blattmasseanteile im Vergleich zu den Bäumen der Fichtenaltersstufe 26. Insgesamt hat die starke Freistellung tendenziell das Allokationsverhältnis zugunsten der Astbiomasse verschoben. Die älteren Bäume bildeten weniger Blattbiomasse im Vergleich zur Stammbiomasse. Einzelbaumweise eingemischte Vogelbeeren können als ideale Mischbaumart für einen ökologischen Waldumbau, speziell in jungen Fichtenreinbeständen, angesehen werden. Die Vogelbeere findet sich auf natürlichem Wege in diesen Beständen ein, wenn eine ausreichende Präsenz an fruktifizierenden Altbäumen gewährleistet ist. Um sie als wertvolle Zeitmischung zu erhalten, muss sie aber als eigenständiger Z-Baum Eingang in die Waldbaustrategien der Fichtenjungbestände finden, indem sie frühzeitig und regelmäßig gefördert wird. Ein passendes Wildmanagement sollte dabei Schäden an den Bäumen weitestgehend vermeiden, welche die Qualität und Vitalität, und somit den Erhalt der Vogelbeeren, nachweislich gefährden. Aus ökologischem Blickwinkel erfahren Standort, Fauna und Flora der Fichtenreinbestände durch die Präsenz geförderter und somit vitaler Vogelbeeren eine Aufwertung. Die freigestellten Bäume produzieren höhere Blattbiomassen, die nachweislich zu einer Verbesserung der Humusauflage führen, und von gesteigerten Fruktifikationsraten können Insekten und Säugetiere profitieren. Eine erhöhte unterirdische Wurzelaktivität und entsprechende Bodenmelioration wird zudem angenommen. Wenn geeignete Verjüngungsnischen in näherer Umgebung der Einzelbäume existieren, kann mit einer konsequent und regelmäßig geförderten Vogelbeere auch dem Nachhaltsumbau für die Gestaltung von zukünftigen Bestandesgenerationen gedient werden. Weiterhin kann sie als eine geeignete Baumart hinsichtlich der Gestaltung eines Risikomanagements nach Störungen und Katastrophen angesehen werden, da sie aufgrund ihrer Eigenschaften für eine rasche Wiederbewaldung sorgt. Vor dem Hintergrund eines prognostizierten Klimawandels stellt sie zudem mit ihrer standörtlichen Anspruchslosigkeit eine geeignete Mischbaumart für zukünftige Bestockungen dar. Die vorliegende Arbeit konnte zeigen, dass das Wuchspotential der Vogelbeere in bisherigen Untersuchungen und daraus resultierenden Erkenntnissen unterschätzt wurde. Konsequent gepflegte Vogelbeeren ohne Wildschäden existieren kaum und konnten somit kaum untersucht werden. An dieser Stelle besteht weiterer Forschungsbedarf, welcher auf längerfristigen Versuchsaufbauten basieren sollte. The present work is part of the joint research program „Zukunftsorientierte Waldwirtschaft (1998-2003)“ which was funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF). The program acted on nationwide requests and formulated goals of federal forest administrations to convert artificial and instable conifer stands unsuited to the site and to significantly increase the portion of mixed populations. Besides economic goals the conversion measures primarily were to consider ecological needs. These were assured by scientific super-vision by the BMBF in respective focal programs. Rowan (Sorbus aucuparia L.) exhibits high climatic and habitational adoptability. Therefore, it is a major secondary tree species in Europe’s average mountain ranges both in natural and artificial spruce forests. This work aimed to investigate how naturally seeded single tree admixtures of rowan can precociously be integrated into the management of young spruce stands. By rowan is viewed as a vital member of stand for a considerable part of the stand`s lifecycle in the sense of natural forest conversion, at least until its potential natural rejuvenation. The major goal in this approach was an ideal single tree development of rowan with respect to dimension, quality and, above all, its vitality. As a basis, the areal potential of young spruce stands aged up to 50 years in the mid altitudinal ranges containing naturally seeded single tree admixtures of rowan was determined by querying the forest inventory system database of the Federal Forest of Saxony (FESA). Selected stands were visited at random in the frame of a terrestrial inventory and found rowans were examined with respect to dimension, quality, vitality and damage. Furthermore, young spruce stands in the age of 16, 19, 26 and 32 years at sites of moderate trophic level at midaltitude of the Saxon forestry district Bärenfels were selected for a silvicultural experiment. In these stands single tree admixtures of rowans differing in sociological situation were supported by either no, moderate or strong thinning. Growth responses of different tree compartments of the examined rowans were analyzed in relation to the factors age, thinning variant and competition. For some measurements destructive removal of trees from the experimental design became necessary. In total, approx.700 ha of young spruce stands containing rowan as single tree admixtures in the overstorey or as additional tree species records were registered. The average percentage of mountain as in the overstorey was approx. 16 %. The terrestrial inventory demonstrated that very young stands with small plot sizes (up to 4 ha) exhibit the highest occurrence of rowan. Even though trees are mainly characterized by several secondary trunks here, straightshaped stems could be found in the majority of examined individuals. In older stands the percentage of constricted and bifurcated stems raised and sociological position of the rowan trees was increasingly determined as “dominated” and “repressed”. Recorded stripping damage was low in contrast to expectations. Notable stripping damage was only found in the two oldest age classes of spruce and was determined as low. The vitality assessment of the rowans using the tree species independent crown assessment method according to ROLOFF (2001) resulted predominantly in a weakened to substantially weakened vitality. Results of the silvicultural experiment demonstrated the growth reactions of rowan differ depending on the age class of spruces under investigation. The earlier crown release is initiated the stronger are the reactions of a single tree. Released trees considerably reacted by enhanced increment of relative diameter at breast height with the category of “moderate thinning” in direction showed highest values at the end of the observation period while this increment decreased with increasing age class of the spruces. Treering analysis of stem disks from removed individuals revealed that the enhanced rate of diameter growth decreased again after 3 vegetation periods. Vertical growth was not significantly influenced by the taken measures in any of the spruce age classes or competitive situations under investigation. Overall, all trees under investigation were characterized by high height to diameter ratios (mean of 138) with only rowans of age category 19 exhibiting relatively stable values below 100. Released rowans developed markedly expanded crown areas in all investigated ageclasses and a significantly elevated increment in crown diameter. Results of the total leaf biomass estimations revealed clear tendencies for rowans in the spruce age category 26. These prove the supported trees having developed more leaf biomass per individual as nonsupported. The number of fructifying trees rose from 41 % in 2001 to 81 % in 2003 whereas the sample size was reduced by 17 in 2003 by destructive sampling. A tendency of increased dry fruit mass per rowan berry depending on the release variant could be seen with stronger released trees producing more fruit mass than moderately released ones (p=0.029). For an average sample tree of approx. 5 cm breast height diameter a total hair root mass of approx. 202 g (R² = 0.30) and a maximum horizontal hair root distribution of approx. 8 m was determined. Highest mean portions of overall aboveground biomass of the trees were assigned to the stem compartment with percentages ranging from 67 to 86 % throughout all experimental variants. These were followed by the biomass portions of branches from the light crown (approx. 5.5 to 15.5 %). The leaf biomass accounts for a comparatively low proportion of the tree (between 3.1 und 12.4 % throughout all variants). The younger trees of spruce age category 16 had relatively high portions of leaf biomass as compared to trees of spruce age category 26. Altogether the strong release shifted the allocation pattern in favor of the branches biomass. Older trees developed less leaf biomass compared to stem biomass. Single tree admixtures of rowan can be considered ideal for ecological forest conversion, especially in young spruce stands. Rowan naturally adapts to these stands if a sufficient presence of fructifying, old trees is ensured. To preserve it as valuable temporal mixture, it has to make its way into forestry planting strategies for young spruce stands as an autonomous future tree by being receiving early and regular support. Associated wildlife management should as far as possible avoid damage of the trees endangering quality and vitality and by that preservation of rowans. From an ecological perspective the site, fauna and flora of pure spruce stands experience a revaluation through the presence of supported and therefore vital rowans. The released trees produce higher amounts of leaf biomass demonstrably leading to an amelioration of the humus layer and insects and mammals can profit from enhanced fructification rates. Furthermore, an increased underground root activity and related soil melioration is assumed. If suitable regeneration niches exist nearby the single trees, consequently and regularly supported rowans can as well serve sustainable conversion for the design of future generations of tree populations. Furthermore it can be considered a suitable tree species in view of the creation of a risk management plan following disturbances and catastrophes as its characteristics ensure fast reforestation. Against the background of a predicted climate change the rowan with its habitational modesty constitutes a suitable species for future stockings. The present work could demonstrate a clear underestimation of the growth potential of rowan in studies to date and their resulting conclusions. Consequently maintained rowans without damage caused by game do rarely exist and could therefore rarely be examined. Here, additional research is needed which should be based on longerterm experimental setups.

Silvicultural practices lead to changes in forest composition and structure and may impact species diversity from the overall regional species pool to stand-level species occurrence. We explored to what extent fine-scale occupancy patterns in differently managed forest stands are driven by environment and ecological traits in three regions in Germany using a multi-species hierarchical model. We tested for the possible impact of environmental variables and ecological traits on occupancy dynamics in a joint modelling exercise while taking possible variation in coefficient estimates over years and plots into account. Bird species richness differed across regions and years, and trends in species richness across years were different in the three regions. On the species level, forest management affected occupancy of species in all regions, but only 35% of the total assemblage-level variation in occurrence probability was explained by either forest type and successional stage and 1% by forest edge. On the assemblage level, bird occurrence decreased with body mass in all regions. Species with smaller breeding ranges had lower occurrence probabilities in one region, while later spring arrival decreased occurrence probabilities in the two other regions. Spatial variation in the effect size of trait covariates such as species phylogeny and breeding strata showed that variation in patch occupancy due to fine-scale differences in forest management is, to some extent, predictable from ecological traits. Our results show that environmental factors and ecological traits jointly predict variation in bird occupancy patterns and their response to forest management. Observations at the fine scale of forest stands, at which conservation efforts can be arranged along with forest management practices in heterogeneous environments, have been shown to provide meaningful insights despite the difficulties involved in monitoring mobile organisms such as birds at the plot level.

Functional biodiversity research explores drivers and functional consequences of biodiversity changes Land use change is a major driver of changes of biodiversity and of biogeochemical and biological ecosystem processes and services However, land use effects on genetic and species diversity are well documented only for a few taxa and trophic networks We hardly know how different components of biodiversity and their responses to land use change are interrelated and very little about the simultaneous, and interacting, effects of land use on multiple ecosystem processes and services Moreover, we do not know to what extent land use effects on ecosystem processes and services are mediated by biodiversity change Thus, overall goals are on the one hand to understand the effects of land use on biodiversity and on the other to understand the modifying role of biodiversity change for land-use effects on ecosystem processes, including biogeochemical cycles To comprehensively address these Important questions, we recently established a new large-scale and long-term project for functional biodiversity, the Biodiversity Exploratories (www biodiversity-exploratories de) They comprise a hierarchical set of standardized field plots in three different regions of Germany covering manifold management types and intensities in grasslands and forests They serve as a joint research platform for currently 40 projects involving over 300 people studying various aspects of the relationships between land use biodiversity and ecosystem processes through monitoring, comparative observation and experiments We introduce guiding questions, concept and design of the Biodiversity Exploratories - including main aspects of selection and implementation of field plots and project structure - and we discuss the significance of this approach for further functional biodiversity research This includes the crucial relevance of a common study design encompassing variation in both drivers and outcomes of biodiversity change and ecosystem processes, the interdisciplinary integration of biodiversity and ecosystem researchers, the training of a new generation of integrative biodiversity researchers, and the stimulation of functional biodiversity research in real landscape contexts, in Germany and elsewhere.