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UNLABELLED: AXIN1 is a major component of the β-catenin destruction complex and is frequently mutated in various cancer types, particularly liver cancers. Truncating AXIN1 mutations are recognized to encode a defective protein that leads to β-catenin stabilization, but the functional consequences of missense mutations are not well characterized. Here, we first identified the GSK3β, β-catenin, and RGS/APC interaction domains of AXIN1 that are the most critical for proper β-catenin regulation. Analysis of 80 tumor-associated variants in these domains identified 18 that significantly affected β-catenin signaling. Coimmunoprecipitation experiments revealed that most of them lost binding to the binding partner corresponding to the mutated domain. A comprehensive protein structure analysis predicted the consequences of these mutations, which largely overlapped with the observed effects on β-catenin signaling in functional experiments. The structure analysis also predicted that loss-of-function mutations within the RGS/APC interaction domain either directly affected the interface for APC binding or were located within the hydrophobic core and destabilized the entire structure. In addition, truncated AXIN1 length inversely correlated with the β-catenin regulatory function, with longer proteins retaining more functionality. These analyses suggest that all AXIN1-truncating mutations at least partially affect β-catenin regulation, whereas this is only the case for a subset of missense mutations. Consistently, most colorectal and liver cancers carrying missense variants acquire mutations in other β-catenin regulatory genes such as APC and CTNNB1. These results will aid the functional annotation of AXIN1 mutations identified in large-scale sequencing efforts or in individual patients. SIGNIFICANCE: Characterization of 80 tumor-associated missense variants of AXIN1 reveals a subset of 18 mutations that disrupt its β-catenin regulatory function, whereas the majority are passenger mutations.

The link between bipolar disorder (BP) and immune dysfunction remains controversial. While epidemiological studies have long suggested an association, recent research has found only limited evidence of such a relationship. To clarify this, we performed an exploratory study of the contributions of immune-relevant genetic factors to the response to lithium (Li) treatment and the clinical presentation of BP. First, we assessed the association of a large collection of immune-related genes (4925) with Li response, defined by the Retrospective Assessment of the Lithium Response Phenotype Scale (Alda scale), and clinical characteristics in patients with BP from the International Consortium on Lithium Genetics (ConLi+Gen, N = 2374). Second, we calculated here previously published polygenic scores (PGSs) for immune-related traits and evaluated their associations with Li response and clinical features. Overall, we observed relatively weak associations (p

Reactive astrocytes are important pathophysiologically and synthesize neurosteroids. We observed that LPS increased immunoreactive TLR4 and key steroidogenic enzymes in cortical astrocytes of rats and investigated whether corticosteroids are produced and mediate astrocytic TLR4‐dependent innate immune responses. We found that LPS increased steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR) and StAR‐dependent aldosterone production in purified astrocytes. Both increases were blocked by the TLR4 antagonist TAK242. LPS also increased 11β‐hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11β‐HSD1) and corticosterone production, and both were prevented by TAK242 and by siRNAs against 11β‐HSD1, StAR, or aldosterone synthase (CYP11B2). Knockdown of 11β‐HSD1, StAR, or CYP11B2 or blocking either mineralocorticoid receptors (MR) or glucocorticoid receptors (GR) prevented dephosphorylation of p‐Ser9GSK‐3β, activation of NF‐κB, and the GSK‐3β‐dependent increases of C3, IL‐1β, and TNF‐α caused by LPS. Exogenous aldosterone mimicked the MR‐ and GSK‐3β‐dependent pro‐inflammatory effects of LPS in astrocytes, but corticosterone did not. Supernatants from astrocytes treated with LPS reduced MAP2 and viability of cultured neurons except when astrocytic StAR or MR was inhibited. In adrenalectomized rats, intracerebroventricular injection of LPS increased astrocytic TLR4, StAR, CYP11B2, and 11β‐HSD1, NF‐κB, C3 and IL‐1β, decreased astrocytic p‐Ser9GSK‐3β in the cortex and was neurotoxic, except when spironolactone was co‐injected, consistent with the in vitro results. LPS also activated NF‐κB in some NeuN+ and CD11b+ cells in the cortex, and these effects were prevented by spironolactone. We conclude that intracrine aldosterone may be involved in the TLR4‐dependent innate immune responses of astrocytes and can trigger paracrine effects by activating astrocytic MR/GSK‐3β/NF‐κB signaling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To explore the effects of β-Sitosterol upon hepatocellular carcinoma cell proliferation, apoptosis, migration, invasion, and epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT), and to investigate the underlying mechanism using network pharmacology. Human hepatocellular carcinoma cell lines (Huh-7 and HCCLM3) were expose to gradient concentrations of β-Sitosterol (5 μg/mL, 10 μg/mL, and 20 μg/mL). Cell viability and proliferation were assessed using MTT, CCK-8, colony formation, and EdU assays.Flow cytometry was employed to evaluate cell cycle and apoptosis. Scratch and Transwell assays were performed, respectively, to detect cell migration and invasion. The levels of apoptosis-associated proteins (BAX, BCL2, and cleaved caspase3) as well as EMT-associated proteins (E-cadherin, N-cadherin, Snail, and Vimentin) were detected in Huh-7 and HCCLM3 cell lines using Western blot analysis. The drug target gene for β-Sitosterol was screened via PubChem and subsequently evaluated for expression in the GSE112790 dataset. In addition, the expression level of glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta (GSK3B) within the Cancer Genome Atlas-Liver Hepatocellular Carcinoma (TCGA-LIHC) database was analyzed, along with its correlation to the survival outcomes of patients with hepatocellular carcinoma. The diagnostic efficiency of GSK3B was assessed by analyzing the ROC curve. Subsequently, Huh-7 and HCCLM3 cell lines were transfected with the overexpression vector of GSK3B and then treated with β-Sitosterol to further validate the association between GSK3B and β-Sitosterol. GSK3B demonstrated a significantly elevated expression in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma, which could predict hepatocellular carcinoma patients' impaired prognosis based on GEO dataset and TCGA database. GSK3B inhibitor (CHIR-98014) notably inhibited cell proliferation and invasion, promoted cell apoptosis and cell cycle arrest at G0/G1 phase in hepatocellular carcinoma cells. β-Sitosterol treatment further promoted the efffects of GSK3B inhibitor on hepatocellular carcinoma cells. GSK3B overexpression has been found to enhance the proliferative and invasive capabilities of hepatocellular carcinoma cells. Furthermore it has been observed that GSK3B overexpression, it has been obsear can partially reverse the inhibitory effect of β-Sitosterol upon hepatocellular. β-Sitosterol suppressed hepatocellular carcinoma cell proliferation and invasion, and enhanced apoptosis via inhibiting GSK3B expression. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Endothelial-mesenchymal transition (EndMT) drives endothelium to contribute to atherosclerotic calcification. In a previous study, we showed that glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK3β) inhibition induced β-catenin and reduced mothers against DPP homolog 1 (SMAD1) in order to redirect osteoblast-like cells towards endothelial lineage, thereby reducing vascular calcification in Matrix Gla Protein (Mgp) deficiency and diabetic Ins2Akita/wt mice. Here, we report that GSK3β inhibition or endothelial-specific deletion of GSK3β reduces atherosclerotic calcification. We also find that alterations in β-catenin and SMAD1 induced by GSK3β inhibition in the aortas of Apoe-/- mice are similar to Mgp-/- mice. Together, our results suggest that GSK3β inhibition reduces vascular calcification in atherosclerotic lesions through a similar mechanism to that in Mgp-/- mice.

Endothelial-mesenchymal transition (EndMT) drives the endothelium to contribute to vascular calcification in diabetes mellitus. In our previous study, we showed that glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK3β) inhibition induces β-catenin and reduces mothers against DPP homolog 1 (SMAD1) to direct osteoblast-like cells toward endothelial lineage, thereby reducing vascular calcification in Matrix Gla Protein (Mgp) deficiency. Here, we report that GSK3β inhibition reduces vascular calcification in diabetic Ins2Akita/wt mice. Cell lineage tracing reveals that GSK3β inhibition redirects endothelial cell (EC)-derived osteoblast-like cells back to endothelial lineage in the diabetic endothelium of Ins2Akita/wt mice. We also find that the alterations in β-catenin and SMAD1 by GSK3β inhibition in the aortic endothelium of diabetic Ins2Akita/wt mice are similar to Mgp-/- mice. Together, our results suggest that GSK3β inhibition reduces vascular calcification in diabetic arteries through a similar mechanism to that in Mgp-/- mice.

Objective(s): The process of vascular formation, also known as angiogenesis, primarily relies on endothelial cell proliferation, migration, and invasion. In recent years, it has been discovered that synthetic cannabinoids (SCs) may potentially impact angiogenic processes within the body. We evaluated the impact of the synthetic cannabinoid (R)-5-Fluoro-ADB on the proliferation rate and angiogenesis in Human Cerebral Microvascular Endothelial Cells (hBMECs). Materials and Methods: hBMECs were treated with (R)-5-Fluoro-ADB and investigated for cell viability, migration rate, and tube-like structure formation. Furthermore, angiogenic-related proteins including Angopoitein-1 and -2, and Vascular Endothelial Growth Factors (VEGF) were examined on mRNA and protein levels.Results: The results showed a notable rise in the rate of proliferation (P-value

Although glycogen synthase kinase β (Gsk3β) has been shown to regulate tissue inflammation, whether and how it regulates inflammation resolution versus inflammation activation is unclear. In a murine liver, partial warm ischemia/reperfusion injury (IRI) model, we found that Gsk3β inhibitory phosphorylation increased at both the early-activation and late-resolution stages of the disease. Myeloid Gsk3β deficiency not only alleviated liver injuries, it also facilitated the restoration of liver homeostasis. Depletion of Kupffer cells prior to the onset of liver ischemia diminished the differences between the WT and Gsk3β-KO mice in the activation of liver IRI. However, the resolution of liver IRI remained accelerated in Gsk3β-KO mice. In CD11b-DTR mice, Gsk3β-deficient BM-derived macrophages (BMMs) facilitated the resolution of liver IRI as compared with WT cells. Furthermore, Gsk3β deficiency promoted the reparative phenotype differentiation in vivo in liver-infiltrating macrophages and in vitro in BMMs. Gsk3 pharmacological inhibition promoted the resolution of liver IRI in WT, but not myeloid MerTK-deficient, mice. Thus, Gsk3β regulates liver IRI at both activation and resolution stages of the disease. Gsk3 inactivation enhances the proresolving function of liver-infiltrating macrophages in an MerTK-dependent manner.

Objective(s): The process of vascular formation, also known as angiogenesis, primarily relies on endothelial cell proliferation, migration, and invasion. In recent years, it has been discovered that synthetic cannabinoids (SCs) may potentially impact angiogenic processes within the body. We evaluated the impact of the synthetic cannabinoid (R)-5-Fluoro-ADB on the proliferation rate and angiogenesis in Human Cerebral Microvascular Endothelial Cells (hBMECs). Materials and Methods: hBMECs were treated with (R)-5-Fluoro-ADB and investigated for cell viability, migration rate, and tube-like structure formation. Furthermore, angiogenic-related proteins including Angopoitein-1 and -2, and Vascular Endothelial Growth Factors (VEGF) were examined on mRNA and protein levels. Results: The results showed a notable rise in the rate of proliferation (P-value<0.0001) of HBMECs induced by (R)-5-Fluoro-ADB. The angiogenic capacity of HBMECs was also enhanced between 0.001 µM to 1 µM (R)-5-Fluoro-ADB. Moreover, an increase in the levels of ANG-1, ANG-2, and VEGF mRNA and protein, as well as elevated phosphorylation rate of GSK-3ß, were observed across various concentrations of (R)-5-Fluoro-ADB. Conclusion: Our results suggest an innovative approach in pharmacology for addressing a range of conditions linked to angiogenesis. This approach involves precise targeting of both cannabinoid receptors type-1 and -2. To achieve this, specific agonists or antagonists of these receptors could be employed based on the particular characteristics of the diseases in question. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Regulation of organelle transport by molecular motors along the cytoskeletal microtubules is central to maintaining cellular functions. Here, we show that the ubiquitous tau-related microtubule-associated protein 4 (MAP4) can bias the bidirectional transport of organelles toward the microtubule minus-ends. This is concurrent with MAP4 phosphorylation, mediated by the kinase GSK3β. We demonstrate that MAP4 achieves this bias by tethering the cargo to the microtubules, allowing it to impair the force generation of the plus-end motor kinesin-1. Consistent with this mechanism, MAP4 physically interacts with dynein and dynactin and, when phosphorylated, associates with the cargo-motor complex through its projection domain. Its phosphorylation coincides with the perinuclear accumulation of organelles, a phenotype that is rescued by abolishing the cargo-microtubule MAP4 tether or by the pharmacological inhibition of dynein, confirming the ability of kinesin to inch along, albeit inefficiently, in the presence of phosphorylated MAP4. These findings have broad biological significance because of the ubiquity of MAP4 and the involvement of GSK3β in multiple diseases, more specifically in cancer, where the MAP4-dependent redistribution of organelles may be prevalent in cancer cells, as we demonstrate here for mitochondria in lung carcinoma epithelial cells.

Wnt signal transduction is controlled by the destruction complex (DC), a condensate comprising scaffold proteins and kinases that regulate β-catenin stability. Overexpressed DC scaffolds undergo liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS), but DC mesoscale organization at endogenous expression levels and its role in β-catenin processing were previously unknown. Here, we find that DC LLPS is nucleated by the centrosome. Through a combination of CRISPR-engineered custom fluorescent tags, finite element simulations, and optogenetic tools that allow for manipulation of DC concentration and multivalency, we find that centrosomal nucleation drives processing of β-catenin by colocalizing DC components to a single reaction crucible. Enriching GSK3β partitioning on the centrosome controls β-catenin processing and prevents Wnt-driven embryonic stem cell differentiation to mesoderm. Our findings demonstrate the role of nucleators in controlling biomolecular condensates and suggest tight integration between Wnt signal transduction and the cell cycle.

Stress urinary incontinence (SUI) and pelvic floor disorder (PFD) are common conditions with limited treatment options in women worldwide. Regenerative therapy to restore urethral striated and pelvic floor muscles represents a valuable therapeutic approach. We aim to determine the CRISPR interference-mediated gene silencing effect of the nonviral delivery of nuclease-deactivated dCas9 ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complex on muscle regeneration at the cellular and molecular level. We designed four myostatin (MSTN)-targeting sgRNAs and transfected them into rat myoblast L6 cells together with the dCas9 protein. Myogenesis assay and immunofluorescence staining were performed to evaluate muscle differentiation, while CCK8 assay, cell cycle assay, and 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine staining were used to measure muscle proliferation. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and Western blotting were also performed to examine cellular signaling. Myogenic factors (including myosin heavy chain, MSTN, myocardin, and serum response factor) increased significantly after day 5 during myogenesis. MSTN was efficiently silenced after transfecting the dCas9 RNP complex, which significantly promoted more myotube formation and a higher fusion index for L6 cells. In cellular signaling, MSTN repression enhanced the expression of MyoG and MyoD, phosphorylation of Smad2, and the activity of Wnt1/GSK-3β/β-catenin pathway. Moreover, MSTN repression accelerated L6 cell growth with a higher cell proliferation index as well as a higher expression of cyclin D1 and cyclin E. Nonviral delivery of the dCas9 RNP complex significantly promoted myoblast differentiation and proliferation, providing a promising approach to improve muscle regeneration for SUI and PFD. Further characterization and validation of this approach in vivo are needed.

BackgroundAltered kinase localization is gaining appreciation as a mechanism of cardiovascular disease. Previous work suggests GSK-3β (glycogen synthase kinase 3β) localizes to and regulates contractile function of the myofilament. We aimed to discover GSK-3β's in vivo role in regulating myofilament function, the mechanisms involved, and the translational relevance.MethodsInducible cardiomyocyte-specific GSK-3β knockout mice and left ventricular myocardium from nonfailing and failing human hearts were studied.ResultsSkinned cardiomyocytes from knockout mice failed to exhibit calcium sensitization with stretch indicating a loss of length-dependent activation (LDA), the mechanism underlying the Frank-Starling Law. Titin acts as a length sensor for LDA, and knockout mice had decreased titin stiffness compared with control mice, explaining the lack of LDA. Knockout mice exhibited no changes in titin isoforms, titin phosphorylation, or other thin filament phosphorylation sites known to affect passive tension or LDA. Mass spectrometry identified several z-disc proteins as myofilament phospho-substrates of GSK-3β. Agreeing with the localization of its targets, GSK-3β that is phosphorylated at Y216 binds to the z-disc. We showed pY216 was necessary and sufficient for z-disc binding using adenoviruses for wild-type, Y216F, and Y216E GSK-3β in neonatal rat ventricular cardiomyocytes. One of GSK-3β's z-disc targets, abLIM-1 (actin-binding LIM protein 1), binds to the z-disc domains of titin that are important for maintaining passive tension. Genetic knockdown of abLIM-1 via siRNA in human engineered heart tissues resulted in enhancement of LDA, indicating abLIM-1 may act as a negative regulator that is modulated by GSK-3β. Last, GSK-3β myofilament localization was reduced in left ventricular myocardium from failing human hearts, which correlated with depressed LDA.ConclusionsWe identified a novel mechanism by which GSK-3β localizes to the myofilament to modulate LDA. Importantly, z-disc GSK-3β levels were reduced in patients with heart failure, indicating z-disc localized GSK-3β is a possible therapeutic target to restore the Frank-Starling mechanism in patients with heart failure.

Introduction: Wounds have a significant influence on socioeconomic and the quality of life. Many attempts have been taken to produce advanced wound dressing to fulfill demands. The incorporation of natural therapeutics like medicinal plants in wound dressings is currently popular. However, several medications have failed to enter the market due to inadequate pharmacokinetics data. Computer-aided tools are now available as advanced drug discovery methods, which can be used to screen pharmaceuticals from phytochemicals found in various medicinal plants. This study aims to evaluate the phytoconstituents of Chromolaena odorata extract and its pharmacological potential as a wound-healing agent. Methods: Phytoconstituents from C. odorata were identified using qualitative screening methods and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and their mechanistic properties were assessed using molecular docking and SwissADME tools. Results: Current works revealed that the topmost phytoconstituents in C. odorata were phytol (49.83%), hexadecanoic acid ethyl ester (9.40%), linolenic acid (8.07%), and squalene (3.53%). Through SwissADME analysis, all four topmost compounds obeyed Lipinski’s Rule of 5. In silico molecular docking study of these top phytoconstituents against several protein targets involved in wound healing revealed that squalene had the highest binding affinity to GSK3-β (-6.8 kJ/ mol), MMP-9 (-7.4 kJ/mol), and COX-2 (-8.6 kJ/mol) as compared to other ligands (phytol, linolenic acid, and hexadecenoic acid ethyl ester). Conclusion: These findings suggest that the most prominent compound that contributes to C. odorata’s wound healing capacity is squalene and the incorporation of C. odorata in potential wound dressing formulation is justified.

The human kinome plays a crucial role in several pathways. Its dysregulation has been linked to diverse central nervous system (CNS)-related disorders with a drastic impact on the aging population. Among them, tauopathies, such as Alzheimer's Disease (AD) and Frontotemporal Lobar degeneration (FTLD-tau), are neurodegenerative disorders pathologically defined by the presence of hyperphosphorylated tau-positive intracellular inclusions known as neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs). Compelling evidence has reported the great potential of the simultaneous modulation of multiple protein kinases (PKs) involved in abnormal tau phosphorylation through a concerted pharmacological approach to achieve a superior therapeutic effect relative to classic "one target, one drug" approaches. Here, we report on the identification and characterization of ARN25068 (4), a low nanomolar and well-balanced dual GSK-3β and FYN inhibitor, which also shows inhibitory activity against DYRK1A, an emerging target in AD and tauopathies. Computational and X-Ray studies highlight compound 4's typical H-bonding pattern of ATP-competitive inhibitors at the binding sites of all three PKs. In a tau phosphorylation assay on Tau0N4R-TM-tGFP U2OS cell line, 4 reduces the extent of tau phosphorylation, promoting tau-stabilized microtubule bundles. In conclusion, this compound emerges as a promising prototype for further SAR explorations to develop potent and well-balanced triple GSK-3β/FYN/DYRK1A inhibitors to tackle tau hyperphosphorylation.

Renal ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) can induce acute kidney injury. Empagliflozin is a newly developed inhibitor of sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 (SGLT2) approved as an antidiabetic medication for patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Despite the established cardioprotective functions of empagliflozin, its protective role in renal I/R is unclear. Here, the present study evaluated the renoprotective effects of empagliflozin in a mouse model of renal I/R injury. Male C57/BL6 mice were allocated to sham-operated, I/R, and empagliflozin groups. Kidney pedicles on both sides were clamped for 45 min and were reperfused for 24 h. Empagliflozin (1 mg/kg) was administered to the mice for 2 days preischemia. The GSK-3β inhibitor SB216763 was administered intravenously at the beginning of reperfusion (0.1 mg/kg). Renal function and histological scores were evaluated. The kidneys were taken for immunohistochemical analysis, western blotting and apoptosis measurements. We found that empagliflozin decreased serum levels of creatinine and urea, reduced the average kidney weight-to-tibia length ratio, attenuated tubular damage, reduced renal proinflammatory cytokine expression and inhibited apoptosis in injured kidneys. Furthermore, empagliflozin increased renal glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK-3β) phosphorylation post I/R. Pharmacological inhibition of GSK-3β activity mimicked the renal protective effects offered by empagliflozin. In summary, these results support a protective role of empagliflozin against renal I/R injury.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disorder characterized by dementia. Inhibition of soluble epoxide hydrolase (sEH) regulates inflammation involving in central nervous system (CNS) diseases. However, the exactly mechanism of sEH in AD is still unclear. In this study, we evaluated the vital role of sEH in amyloid beta (Aβ)-induced AD mice, and revealed a possible molecular mechanism for inhibition of sEH in the treatment of AD. The results showed that the sEH expression and activity were remarkably increased in the hippocampus of Aβ-induced AD mice. Chemical inhibition of sEH by TPPU, a selective sEH inhibitor, alleviated spatial learning and memory deficits, and elevated levels of neurotransmitters in Aβ-induced AD mice. Furthermore, inhibition of sEH could ameliorate neuroinflammation, neuronal death, and oxidative stress via stabilizing the in vivo level of epoxyeicosatrienoic acids (EETs), especially 8,9-EET and 14,15-EET, further resulting in the anti-AD effect through the regulation of GSK3β-mediated NF-κB, p53, and Nrf2 signaling pathways. These findings revealed the underlying mechanism of sEH as a potential therapeutic target in treatment of AD.

Ionic lithium shows rare effectiveness for treating bipolar disorder and is a potential drug for neurodegenerative diseases. Unfortunately, lithium suffers from significant drawbacks, mainly a narrow therapeutic window. Among the targets of lithium, glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK-3β) may be responsible for its therapeutic effects. The development of alternative, selective inhibitors of this kinase could prevent lithium side effects, but such efforts have met little success so far. An atomistic understanding of Li+ inhibition and the GSK-3β phosphorylation reaction would therefore facilitate the development of new drugs. In this study, we use extensive sampling of catalytic states with our mixed quantum-classical dynamics method QM/DMD and binding affinities from a competitive metal affinity (CMA) approach to expand the atomistic picture of Li+ GSK-3β inhibition. We compare Li+ action with Be2+ and find our results in agreement with in vitro kinetics studies. Ultimately, our simulations show that Li+ inhibition is driven by decreasing the phosphorylation reaction rate, rather than reducing catalytic turnover through tight binding to different GSK-3β states like Be2+ inhibition. The effect of these metals derive from electrostatic differences and especially their smaller atomic radii compared to the native Mg2+ and thus provide insight for the development of GSK-3β inhibitors based on other paradigms.

Bipolar disorder (BD) is a psychiatric condition characterized by depressive and manic episodes that affect 2% of the world population. The first-line long-term treatment for mood stabilization is lithium (Li). Induced pluripotent stem cell modeling of BD using hippocampal dentate gyrus-like neurons derived from Li-responsive (LR) and Li-non-responsive (NR) patients previously showed neuronal hyperexcitability. Li treatment reversed hyperexcitability only on the LR neurons. In this study we searched for specific targets of Li resistance in NR neurons and found that the activity of Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway was severely affected, with a significant decrease in expression of LEF1. Li targets the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway by inhibiting GSK-3β and releasing β-catenin that forms a nuclear complex with TCF/LEF1, activating the Wnt/β-catenin transcription program. Therefore, we propose that downregulation of LEF1 may account for Li resistance in NR neurons. Our results show that valproic acid (VPA), a drug used to treat NR patients that also acts downstream of GSK-3β, upregulated LEF1 and Wnt/β-catenin gene targets, increased transcriptional activity of complex β-catenin/TCF/LEF1, and reduced excitability in NR neurons. In addition, decreasing LEF1 expression in control neurons using shLEF1 caused hyperexcitability, confirming that the impact of VPA on excitability in NR neurons was connected to changes in LEF1 and in the Wnt/β-catenin pathway. Our results suggest that LEF1 may be a useful target for the discovery of new drugs for BD treatment.

Monotherapy with poly ADP-ribose polymerase (PARP) inhibitors results in a limited objective response rate (≤60% in most cases) in patients with homologous recombination repair (HRR)-deficient cancer, which suggests a high rate of resistance in this subset of patients to PARP inhibitors (PARPi). To overcome resistance to PARPi and to broaden their clinical use, we performed high-throughput screening of 99 anticancer drugs in combination with PARPi to identify potential therapeutic combinations. Here, we found that GSK3 inhibitors (GSK3i) exhibited a strong synergistic effect with PARPi in a panel of colorectal cancer (CRC) cell lines with diverse genetic backgrounds. The combination of GSK3β and PARP inhibition causes replication stress and DNA double-strand breaks, resulting in increased anaphase bridges and abnormal spindles. Mechanistically, inhibition or genetic depletion of GSK3β was found to impair the HRR of DNA and reduce the mRNA and protein level of BRCA1. Finally, we demonstrated that inhibition or depletion of GSK3β could enhance the in vivo sensitivity to simmiparib without toxicity. Our results provide a mechanistic understanding of the combination of PARP and GSK3 inhibition, and support the clinical development of this combination therapy for CRC patients.

ObjectiveTo investigate the anti-tumor effect of a newly-developed dual inhibitor (APCS-540) of glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta (GSK3B) and histone deacetylases (HDACs) in ovarian cancer cells.MethodsThe effects of APCS-540 on cancer cell proliferation, migration, invasion and cancer stemness were investigated in vitro in human (KURAMOCHI, OVCA420, OVSAHO) and mouse (BR-Luc, ID8, MOSE-HRas-Myc) ovarian cancer cells. Cisplatin-sensitive (A2780) and cisplatin-resistant (A2780cis) cell lines were used to evaluate APCS-540's effect on chemoresistance. The immunocompetent syngeneic mouse model BR-Luc was used to test the effect of APCS-540 on ovarian cancer progression and survival.ResultsAPCS-540 showed significant anti-tumor effects in vitro in both human and mouse ovarian cancer cells. Importantly, APCS-540 demonstrated marked cytotoxicity against cisplatin-resistant cancer cells and reversed cisplatin-resistance when used in combination with platinum. APCS-540 significantly decreased cancer cell invasion. A significant 66% increase in survival was observed in mice treated with APCS-540 compared to control mice.ConclusionDual inhibition of GSK3B and HDACs via APCS-540 showed potent anti-tumor activity in vitro and in vivo, suggesting that APCS-540 may provide a novel treatment option for ovarian cancer, including the platinum-resistant disease.

Whether dietary omega-3 (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) confers cardiac benefit in cardiometabolic disorders is unclear. We test whether dietary -linolenic acid (ALA) enhances myocardial resistance to ischemia-reperfusion (I-R) and responses to ischemic preconditioning (IPC) in type 2 diabetes (T2D); and involvement of conventional PUFA-dependent mechanisms (caveolins/cavins, kinase signaling, mitochondrial function, and inflammation). Eight-week male C57Bl/6 mice received streptozotocin (75 mg/kg) and 21 weeks high-fat/high-carbohydrate feeding. Half received ALA over six weeks. Responses to I-R/IPC were assessed in perfused hearts. Localization and expression of caveolins/cavins, protein kinase B (AKT), and glycogen synthase kinase-3 β (GSK3β); mitochondrial function; and inflammatory mediators were assessed. ALA reduced circulating leptin, without affecting body weight, glycemic dysfunction, or cholesterol. While I-R tolerance was unaltered, paradoxical injury with IPC was reversed to cardioprotection with ALA. However, post-ischemic apoptosis (nucleosome content) appeared unchanged. Benefit was not associated with shifts in localization or expression of caveolins/cavins, p-AKT, p-GSK3β, or mitochondrial function. Despite mixed inflammatory mediator changes, tumor necrosis factor-a (TNF-a) was markedly reduced. Data collectively reveal a novel impact of ALA on cardioprotective dysfunction in T2D mice, unrelated to caveolins/cavins, mitochondrial, or stress kinase modulation. Although evidence suggests inflammatory involvement, the basis of this "un-conventional" protection remains to be identified.

PURPOSE: We sought to determine the role of glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β) in the pathogenesis of Graves orbitopathy(GO). METHODS: Expression of the GSK-3β gene in whole orbital tissue explants was compared between GO and non-GO donors using quantitative real-time PCR (RT-PCR). The expression of proinflammatory molecules in the presence of the GSK-3β inhibitor CHIR 99021 was analyzed using RT-PCR, western blot, and ELISA. Adipogenic differentiation was identified using Oil Red O staining, and the levels of peroxisome proliferator activator gamma (PPARγ) and CCAAT-enhancer-binding proteins (C/EBPs) α and β were determined by western blot. RESULTS: The expression of GSK-3β was significantly higher in GO tissues than in control tissues. The addition of CHIR 99021 led to a decrease in the active form of the kinase in which the Y216 residue is phosphorylated. When GO and non-GO fibroblasts were stimulated with IL-1β or TNF-α, IL-6, IL-8, intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1), and monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP-1) showed increased production, which was blunted when CHIR 99021 was added. The activation of Akt, PI3K, nuclear factor (NF)-κB, Erk, Jnk, and p38 kinase by IL-1β and TNF-α was diminished with CHIR 99021 in GO cells. A decrease in lipid droplets and expression of PPARγ and c/EBPα and -β was noted in fibroblasts treated with CHIR 99021 during adipocyte differentiation. The inhibition of Wnt and β-catenin in adipogenesis was reversed by CHIR 99021. CONCLUSIONS: GSK-3β plays a significant role in GO pathogenesis. The inhibition of the kinase attenuated the proinflammatory cytokines production and fibroblast differentiation into adipocytes. GSK-3β may be a potential target for anti-inflammatory and anti-adipogenic treatment of GO.

Cytolethal distending toxins (Cdt) are a family of toxins produced by several human pathogens which infect mucocutaneous tissue and induce inflammatory disease. We have previously demonstrated that the Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans Cdt induces a pro-inflammatory response from human macrophages which involves activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome. We now demonstrate that in addition to activating caspase-1 (canonical inflammasome), Cdt treatment leads to caspase-4 activation and involvement of the noncanonical inflammasome. Cdt-treated cells exhibit pyroptosis characterised by cleavage of gasdermin-D (GSDMD), release of HMGB1 at 24 hr and LDH at 48 hr. Inhibition of either the canonical (caspase-1) or noncanonical (caspase-4) inflammasome blocks both Cdt-induced release of IL-1β and induction of pyroptosis. Analysis of upstream events indicates that Cdt induces Syk phosphorylation (activation); furthermore, blockade of Syk expression and inhibition of pSyk activity inhibit both Cdt-induced cytokine release and pyroptosis. Finally, we demonstrate that increases in pSyk are dependent upon Cdt-induced activation of GSK3β. These studies advance our understanding of Cdt function and provide new insight into the virulence potential of Cdt in mediating the pathogenesis of disease caused by Cdt-producing organisms such as A. actinomycetemcomitans.

Rationale: Cigarette smoking is a well-established risk factor for myocardial infarction and sudden cardiac death. The deleterious effects are mainly due to nicotine, but the mechanisms involved and theranostics remain unclear. Thus, we tested the hypothesis that nicotine exposure increases the heart sensitivity to ischemia/reperfusion injury and dysfunction, which can be rescued by autophagy inhibitor. Methods: Nicotine or saline was administered to adult rats via subcutaneous osmotic minipumps in the absence or presence of an autophagy inhibitor, 3-methyladenine (3-MA). After 30 days of nicotine treatment, the rats underwent the cardiac ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) procedure and echocardiography analysis, and the heart tissues were isolated for molecular biological studies. Results: Nicotine exposure increased I/R-induced cardiac injury and cardiac dysfunction as compared to the control. The levels of autophagy-related proteins including LC3 II, P62, Beclin1, and Atg5 were upregulated in the reperfused hearts isolated from nicotine-treated group. In addition, nicotine enhanced cardiac and plasma ROS production, and increased the phosphorylation of GSK3β (ser9) in the left ventricle tissues. Treatment with 3-MA abolished nicotine-mediated increase in the levels of autophagy-related proteins and phosphorylation of GSK3β, but had no effect on ROS production. Of importance, 3-MA ameliorated the augmented I/R-induced cardiac injury and dysfunction in the nicotine-treated group as compared to the control. Conclusion: Our results demonstrate that nicotine exposure enhances autophagy signaling pathway, resulting in development of ischemic-sensitive phenotype of heart. It suggests a potentially novel therapeutic strategy of autophagy inhibition for the treatment of ischemic heart disease.

Epithelial homeostasis plays an essential role in maintaining endometrial function. But the epithelial role in endometrial fibrosis has been less studied. Previously, we showed that ectopic expression of ΔNp63α is associated with fibrosis process and epithelial dysfunction in endometria of patients with intrauterine adhesions (IUAs). Since ΔNp63α is profoundly involved in maintaining the epithelial homeostasis, we hereby focused on its roles in regulating the function and phenotype of endometrial epithelial cells (EECs) in context of endometrial fibrosis. We identified a typical type 2 epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in EECs from IUA patients and this process was induced by the forced expression of ΔNp63α in EECs. In transcriptomic analysis, we found that diverse signaling pathways regulated by ΔNp63α were involved in pro-EMT. We demonstrated that the DUSP4/GSK-3β/SNAI1 pathway was critical in transducing the pro-EMT signals initiated by ΔNp63α, while bFGF reversed ΔNp63α-induced EMT and endometrial fibrosis both in vitro and in vivo by blocking DUSP4/GSK3β/SNAI1 pathway. Taken together, our findings are important to understand the molecular mechanisms of endometrial fibrosis and to provide potential therapeutic targets.

Background and Objective: Chronic use of opioids leads to analgesic tolerance. Protein kinase C (PKC), adenylyl cyclase (AC), nitric oxide (NO) and glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta (GSK-3β) are involved in morphine tolerance. Lithium activates the phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (AKT) pathway that inhibits GSK-3β and reduces morphine-induced tolerance. This study was performed to evaluate the effects of lithium on morphine dependence symptoms and tolerance of its analgesic effects in Swiss mice by GSK-3β signaling. Methods: This experimental study was performed on 56 Swiss male albino mice that were randomly allocated into 8 groups (each containing 7 mice). The intraperitoneal injection of morphine at different concentrations (50, 50 and 75 mg/kg) and different hours (08:00, 11:00 and 16:00, respectively) was performed for 4 days, and a single dose 50 mg/kg was administered on the 5th day. The effects of three doses of lithium (1, 5 and 10 mg/kg) given orally, 45 min before morphine injections on morphine-induced analgesic tolerance were evaluated. To evaluate analgesia latency on day 1, 3 and 5, tail flick and hot plate tests were done. The brain of each animal was removed to measure nitrite levels, and histological evaluation and immunohistochemistry for p-glycogen synthase (p-GSSer640) were performed on the last day of the study. Results: Co-administration of lithium significantly increased the latency of analgesia in comparison with the morphine group on the 3rd and 5th day (P

Aims Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors have beneficial effects on heart failure and cardiovascular mortality in diabetic and non-diabetic patients, with unclear mechanisms. Autophagy is a cardioprotective mechanism under acute stress conditions, but excessive autophagy accelerates myocardial cell death leading to autosis. We evaluated the protective role of empagliflozin (EMPA) against cardiac injury in murine diabetic cardiomyopathy. Methods and results Male mice, rendered diabetics by one single intraperitoneal injection of streptozotocin and treated with EMPA (30 mg/kg/day), had fewer apoptotic cells (4.9 ± 2.1 vs. 1 ± 0.5 TUNEL-positive cells %, P < 0.05), less senescence (10.1 ± 2 vs. 7.9 ± 1.2 β-gal positivity/tissue area, P < 0.05), fibrosis (0.2 ± 0.05 vs. 0.15 ± 0.06, P < 0.05 fibrotic area/tissue area), autophagy (7.9 ± 0.05 vs. 2.3 ± 0.6 fluorescence intensity/total area, P < 0.01), and connexin (Cx)-43 lateralization compared with diabetic mice. Proteomic analysis showed a down-regulation of the 5′ adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) pathway and upstream activation of sirtuins in the heart of diabetic mice treated with EMPA compared with diabetic mice. Because sirtuin activation leads to the modulation of cardiomyogenic transcription factors, we analysed the DNA binding activity to serum response elements (SRE) of serum response factor (SRF) by electromobility shift assay. Compared with diabetic mice [0.5 ± 0.01 densitometric units (DU)], non-diabetic mice treated with EMPA (2.2 ± 0.01 DU, P < 0.01) and diabetic mice treated with EMPA (2.0 ± 0.1 DU, P < 0.01) significantly increased SRF binding activity to SRE, paralleled by increased cardiac actin expression (4.1 ± 0.1 vs. 2.2 ± 0.01 target protein/β-actin ratio, P < 0.01). EMPA significantly reversed cardiac dysfunction on echocardiography in diabetic mice and inhibited excessive autophagy in high-glucose-treated cardiomyocytes by inhibiting the autophagy inducer glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta (GSK3β), leading to reactivation of cardiomyogenic transcription factors. Conclusion Taken together, our results describe a novel paradigm in which EMPA inhibits hyperactivation of autophagy through the AMPK/GSK3β signalling pathway in the context of diabetes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Activation of antiapoptotic signaling cascades, such as the reperfusion injury salvage kinase (RISK) and survivor activating factor enhancement (SAFE) pathways, is protective in a variety of tissues in the context of ischemia-reperfusion (IR) injury. Hepatic IR injury causes clinically significant hepatocellular damage in surgical procedures, including liver transplantation and hepatic resection, increasing associated morbidity and mortality. We previously found that the cardiovascular-expressed K+ voltage-gated channel ancillary subunit KCNE4 sex specifically influences the cardiac RISK/SAFE pathway response to IR and that Kcne4 deletion testosterone dependently exacerbates cardiac IR injury. Here, we discovered that germline Kcne4 deletion exacerbates hepatic IR injury damage in 13-mo-old male mice, despite a lack of Kcne4 expression in male mouse liver. Examining RISK/SAFE pathway induction, we found that Kcne4 deletion prevents the hepatic ERK1/2 phosphorylation response to IR injury. Conversely, in 13-mo-old female mice, Kcne4 deletion increased both baseline and post-IR GSK-3β inhibitory phosphorylation, and pharmacological GSK-3β inhibition was hepatoprotective. Finally, castration of male mice restored normal hepatic RISK/SAFE pathway responses in Kcne4-/- mice, eliminated Kcne4 deletion-dependent serum alanine aminotransferase elevation, and genotype independently augmented the hepatic post-IR GSK-3β phosphorylation response. These findings support a role for KCNE4 as a systemic modulator of IR injury response and uncover hormonally influenced, sex-specific, KCNE4-dependent and -independent RISK/SAFE pathway induction.

The nutrient-sensing metabolite S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) controls one-carbon metabolism by donating methyl groups to biochemical building blocks, DNA, RNA, and protein. Our recent work uncovered a requirement for cytoplasmic arginine methylation during Wnt signaling through the activity of protein arginine methyltransferase 1 (PRMT1), which transfers one-carbon groups from SAM to many protein substrates. Here, we report that treatments that decrease levels of the universal methyl donor SAM were potent inhibitors of Wnt signaling and of Wnt-induced digestion of extracellular proteins in endolysosomes. Thus, arginine methylation provides the canonical Wnt pathway with metabolic sensing properties through SAM. The rapid accumulation of Wnt-induced endolysosomes within 30 minutes was inhibited by the depletion of methionine, an essential amino acid that serves as the direct substrate for SAM production. We also found that methionine is required for GSK3 sequestration into multivesicular bodies through microautophagy, an essential step in Wnt signaling activity. Methionine starvation greatly reduced Wnt-induced endolysosomal degradation of extracellular serum proteins. Similar results were observed by addition of nicotinamide (vitamin B3), which serves as a methyl group sink. Methotrexate, a pillar in the treatment of cancer since 1948, decreases SAM levels. We show here that methotrexate blocked Wnt-induced endocytic lysosomal activity and reduced canonical Wnt signaling. Importantly, the addition of SAM during methionine depletion or methotrexate treatment was sufficient to rescue endolysosomal function and Wnt signaling. Inhibiting the Wnt signaling pathway by decreasing one-carbon metabolism provides a platform for designing interventions in Wnt-driven disease.

Background & aimsGrowth, progression, and drug resistance of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinomas (PDACs) have been associated with increased levels and activity of glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta (GSK3B) and histone deacetylases (HDACs). We designed and synthesized molecules that simultaneously inhibit the activities of both enzymes. We tested the effects of one of these molecules, Metavert, in pancreatic cancer cells and mice with pancreatic tumors.MethodsWe tested the ability of Metavert to bind GSK3B and HDACs using surface plasmon resonance. MIA PaCa-2, Bx-PC3, HPAF-II, and HPDE6 cell lines were incubated with different concentrations of Metavert, with or without paclitaxel or gemcitabine, or with other inhibitors of GSK3B and HDACs; cells were analyzed for apoptosis and migration and by immunoblotting, immunofluorescence, and real-time polymerase chain reaction. Krasþ/LSLG12D;Trp53þ/LSLR172H;Pdx-1-Cre (KPC) mice (2 months old) were given injections of Metavert (5 mg/kg, 3 times/week) or vehicle (control). B6.129J mice with tumors grown from UN-KPC961-Luc cells were given injections of Metavert or vehicle. Tumors and metastases were counted and pancreata were analyzed by immunohistochemistry. Glucose metabolism was measured using 13C-glucose tracer and mass spectroscopy and flow cytometry. Cytokine levels in blood samples were measured using multiplexing enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.ResultsMetavert significantly reduced survival of PDAC cells but not nontransformed cells; the agent reduced markers of the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition and stem cells in PDAC cell lines. Cells incubated with Metavert in combination with irradiation and paclitaxel or gemcitabine had reduced survival compared with cells incubated with either agent alone; Metavert increased killing of drug-resistant PDAC cells by paclitaxel and gemcitabine. PDAC cells incubated with Metavert acquired normalized glucose metabolism. Administration of Metavert (alone or in combination with gemcitibine) to KPC mice or mice with syngeneic tumors significantly increased their survival times, slowed tumor growth, prevented tumor metastasis, decreased tumor infiltration by tumor-associated macrophages, and decreased blood levels of cytokines.ConclusionsIn studies of PDAC cells and 2 mouse models of PDAC, we found a dual inhibitor of GSK3B and HDACs (Metavert) to induce cancer cell apoptosis, reduce migration and expression of stem cell markers, and slow growth of tumors and metastases. Metavert had synergistic effects with gemcitabine.

PURPOSE: Bioactive molecules critical to intracellular signaling are contained in extracellular vesicles (EVs) and have cardioprotective effects in ischemia/reperfusion (IR) injured hearts. This study investigated the mechanism of the cardioprotective effects of EVs derived from hypoxia-preconditioned human mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). MATERIALS AND METHODS: EV solutions (0.4 μg/μL) derived from normoxia-preconditioned MSCs (EV(NM)) and hypoxia-preconditioned MSCs (EV(HM)) were delivered in a rat IR injury model. Successful EV delivery was confirmed by the detection of PKH26 staining in hearts from EV-treated rats. RESULTS: EV(HM) significantly reduced infarct size (24±2% vs. 8±1%, p

Background & aimsGlycogen synthase kinase 3β (Gsk3β [Gsk3b]) is a ubiquitously expressed kinase with distinctive functions in different types of cells. Although its roles in regulating innate immune activation and ischaemia and reperfusion injuries (IRIs) have been well documented, the underlying mechanisms remain ambiguous, in part because of the lack of cell-specific tools in vivo.MethodsWe created a myeloid-specific Gsk3b knockout (KO) strain to study the function of Gsk3β in macrophages in a murine liver partial warm ischaemia model.ResultsCompared with controls, myeloid Gsk3b KO mice were protected from IRI, with diminished proinflammatory but enhanced anti-inflammatory immune responses in livers. In bone marrow-derived macrophages, Gsk3β deficiency resulted in an early reduction of Tnf gene transcription but sustained increase of Il10 gene transcription on Toll-like receptor 4 stimulation in vitro. These effects were associated with enhanced AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activation, which led to an accelerated and higher level of induction of the novel innate immune negative regulator small heterodimer partner (SHP [Nr0b2]). The regulatory function of Gsk3β on AMPK activation and SHP induction was confirmed in wild-type bone marrow-derived macrophages with a Gsk3 inhibitor. Furthermore, we found that this immune regulatory mechanism was independent of Gsk3β Ser9 phosphorylation and the phosphoinositide 3-kinase-Akt signalling pathway. In vivo, myeloid Gsk3β deficiency facilitated SHP upregulation by ischaemia-reperfusion in liver macrophages. Treatment of Gsk3b KO mice with either AMPK inhibitor or SHP small interfering RNA before the onset of liver ischaemia restored liver proinflammatory immune activation and IRI in these otherwise protected hosts. Additionally, pharmacological activation of AMPK protected wild-type mice from liver IRI, with reduced proinflammatory immune activation. Inhibition of the AMPK-SHP pathway by liver ischaemia was demonstrated in tumour resection patients.ConclusionsGsk3β promotes innate proinflammatory immune activation by restraining AMPK activation.Lay summaryGlycogen synthase kinase 3β promotes macrophage inflammatory activation by inhibiting the immune regulatory signalling of AMP-activated protein kinase and the induction of small heterodimer partner. Therefore, therapeutic targeting of glycogen synthase kinase 3β enhances innate immune regulation and protects liver from ischaemia and reperfusion injury.

BackgroundClinical trials of therapies directed against nodes of the signaling axis of phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase/Akt/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) in glioblastoma (GBM) have had disappointing results. Resistance to mTOR inhibitors limits their efficacy.MethodsTo determine mechanisms of resistance to chronic mTOR inhibition, we performed tandem screens on patient-derived GBM cultures.ResultsAn unbiased phosphoproteomic screen quantified phosphorylation changes associated with chronic exposure to the mTOR inhibitor rapamycin, and our analysis implicated a role for glycogen synthase kinase (GSK)3B attenuation in mediating resistance that was confirmed by functional studies. A targeted short hairpin RNA screen and further functional studies both in vitro and in vivo demonstrated that microtubule-associated protein (MAP)1B, previously associated predominantly with neurons, is a downstream effector of GSK3B-mediated resistance. Furthermore, we provide evidence that chronic rapamycin induces microtubule stability in a MAP1B-dependent manner in GBM cells. Additional experiments explicate a signaling pathway wherein combinatorial extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)/mTOR targeting abrogates inhibitory phosphorylation of GSK3B, leads to phosphorylation of MAP1B, and confers sensitization.ConclusionsThese data portray a compensatory molecular signaling network that imparts resistance to chronic mTOR inhibition in primary, human GBM cell cultures and points toward new therapeutic strategies.

The identification of biological processes related to the regulation of complex traits is a difficult task. Commonly, complex traits are regulated through a multitude of genes contributing each to a small part of the total genetic variance. Additionally, some loci can simultaneously regulate several complex traits, a phenomenon defined as pleiotropy. The lack of understanding on the biological processes responsible for the regulation of these traits results in the decrease of selection efficiency and the selection of undesirable hitchhiking effects. The identification of pleiotropic key-regulator genes can assist in developing important tools for investigating biological processes underlying complex traits. A multi-breed and multi-OMICs approach was applied to study the pleiotropic effects of key-regulator genes using three independent beef cattle populations evaluated for fertility traits. A pleiotropic map for 32 traits related to growth, feed efficiency, carcass and meat quality, and reproduction was used to identify genes shared among the different populations and breeds in pleiotropic regions. Furthermore, data-mining analyses were performed using the Cattle QTL database (CattleQTLdb) to identify the QTL category annotated in the regions around the genes shared among breeds. This approach allowed the identification of a main gene network (composed of 38 genes) shared among breeds. This gene network was significantly associated with thyroid activity, among other biological processes, and displayed a high regulatory potential. In addition, it was possible to identify genes with pleiotropic effects related to crucial biological processes that regulate economically relevant traits associated with fertility, production and health, such as MYC, PPARG, GSK3B, TG and IYD genes. These genes will be further investigated to better understand the biological processes involved in the expression of complex traits and assist in the identification of functional variants associated with undesirable phenotypes, such as decreased fertility, poor feed efficiency and negative energetic balance.

The identification of biological processes related to the regulation of complex traits is a difficult task. Commonly, complex traits are regulated through a multitude of genes contributing each to a small part of the total genetic variance. Additionally, some loci can simultaneously regulate several complex traits, a phenomenon defined as pleiotropy. The lack of understanding on the biological processes responsible for the regulation of these traits results in the decrease of selection efficiency and the selection of undesirable hitchhiking effects. The identification of pleiotropic key-regulator genes can assist in developing important tools for investigating biological processes underlying complex traits. A multi-breed and multi-OMICs approach was applied to study the pleiotropic effects of key-regulator genes using three independent beef cattle populations evaluated for fertility traits. A pleiotropic map for 32 traits related to growth, feed efficiency, carcass and meat quality, and reproduction was used to identify genes shared among the different populations and breeds in pleiotropic regions. Furthermore, data-mining analyses were performed using the Cattle QTL database (CattleQTLdb) to identify the QTL category annotated in the regions around the genes shared among breeds. This approach allowed the identification of a main gene network (composed of 38 genes) shared among breeds. This gene network was significantly associated with thyroid activity, among other biological processes, and displayed a high regulatory potential. In addition, it was possible to identify genes with pleiotropic effects related to crucial biological processes that regulate economically relevant traits associated with fertility, production and health, such as MYC, PPARG, GSK3B, TG and IYD genes. These genes will be further investigated to better understand the biological processes involved in the expression of complex traits and assist in the identification of functional variants associated with undesirable phenotypes, such as decreased fertility, poor feed efficiency and negative energetic balance.

Glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3) plays a central role in diverse cellular processes. GSK3 has two mammalian isozymes, GSK3α and GSK3β, whose functions remain ill-defined because of a lack of inhibitors that can distinguish between the two highly homologous isozymes. Here, we show that GSK3α and GSK3β can be selectively inhibited in mouse embryonic stem cells (ESCs) using a chemical-genetic approach. Selective inhibition of GSK3β is sufficient to maintain mouse ESC self-renewal, whereas GSK3α inhibition promotes mouse ESC differentiation toward neural lineages. Genome-wide transcriptional analysis reveals that GSK3α and GSK3β have distinct sets of downstream targets. Furthermore, selective inhibition of individual GSK3 isozymes yields distinct phenotypes from gene deletion, highlighting the power of the chemical-genetic approach in dissecting kinase catalytic functions from the proteins scaffolding functions. Our study opens new avenues for defining GSK3 isozyme-specific functions in various cellular processes.

BackgroundSudden cardiac death (SCD), a leading cause of global mortality, most commonly arises from a substrate of cardiac ischemia, but requires an additional trigger. Diabetes mellitus (DM) predisposes to SCD even after adjusting for other DM-linked cardiovascular pathology such as coronary artery disease. We previously showed that remote liver ischemia preconditioning (RLIPC) is highly protective against cardiac ischemia reperfusion injury (IRI) linked ventricular arrhythmias and myocardial infarction, via induction of the cardioprotective RISK pathway, and specifically, inhibitory phosphorylation of GSK-3β (Ser 9).MethodsWe evaluated the impact of acute streptozotocin-induced DM on coronary artery ligation IRI-linked ventricular arrhythmogenesis and RLIPC therapy in rats.ResultsPost-IRI arrhythmia induction was similar in nondiabetic and DM rats, but, unexpectedly, DM rats exhibited lower incidence of SCD during reperfusion (41 vs. 100%), suggesting uncontrolled hyperglycemia does not acutely predispose to SCD. RLIPC was highly effective in both nondiabetic and DM rats at reducing incidence and duration of, and increasing latency to, all classes of ventricular tachyarrhythmias. In contrast, atrioventricular block (AVB) was highly responsive to RLIPC in nondiabetic rats (incidence reduced from 72 to 18%) but unresponsive in DM rats. RISK pathway induction was similar in nondiabetic and DM rats, thus not explaining the DM-specific resistance of AVB to therapy.ConclusionsOur findings uncover important acute DM-specific differences in responsiveness to remote preconditioning for ventricular tachyarrhythmias versus AVB, which may have clinical significance given that AVB is a malignant arrhythmia twofold more common in human diabetics than nondiabetics, and correlated to plasma glucose levels >10 mmol/L.

Background and Objective: Chronic use of opioids leads to analgesic tolerance. Protein kinase C (PKC), adenylyl cyclase (AC), nitric oxide (NO) and glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta (GSK-3β) are involved in morphine tolerance. Lithium activates the phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (AKT) pathway that inhibits GSK-3β and reduces morphineinduced tolerance. This study was performed to evaluate the effects of lithium on morphine dependence symptoms and tolerance of its analgesic effects in Swiss mice by GSK-3β signaling. Methods: This experimental study was performed on 56 Swiss male albino mice that were randomly allocated into 8 groups (each containing 7 mice). The intraperitoneal injection of morphine at different concentrations (50, 50 and 75 mg/kg) and different hours (08:00, 11:00 and 16:00, respectively) was performed for 4 days, and a single dose 50 mg/kg was administered on the 5th day. The effects of three doses of lithium (1, 5 and 10 mg/kg) given orally, 45 min before morphine injections on morphine-induced analgesic tolerance were evaluated. To evaluate analgesia latency on day 1, 3 and 5, tail flick and hot plate tests were done. The brain of each animal was removed to measure nitrite levels, and histological evaluation and immunohistochemistry for p-glycogen synthase (p-GSSer640) were performed on the last day of the study. Results: Co-administration of lithium significantly increased the latency of analgesia in comparison with the morphine group on the 3rd and 5th day (P<0.05). Lithium reduced the morphine-induced increase of nitrite levels and also reduced brain damage. In addition, immunohistochemistry assay of p-GSSer640 indicated a significant reduction of the morphine-induced phosphorylation of GS at S640 by GSK in the lithium-treated mice. Conclusion: Lithium administration can reduce morphine tolerance in adult male Swiss mice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background According to recent evidence, psychobiotics exert beneficial effects on central nervous system-related diseases, such as mental disorders. Lactobacillus plantarum PS128 (PS128), a novel psychobiotic strain, improves motor function, depression, and anxiety behaviors. However, the psychobiotic effects and mechanisms of PS128 in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) remain to be explored. Objectives The goal of the current study was to evaluate the beneficial effects of PS128 and to further elucidate its mechanism in AD mice. Methods PS128 (1010 colony-forming unit (CFU)/ml) was administered via oral gavage (o.g.) to 6-month-old male wild-type B6 and 3 × Tg-AD mice (harboring the PS1M146V, APPswe and TauP30IL transgenes) that received an intracerebroventricular injection of streptozotocin (icv-STZ, 3 mg/kg) or vehicle (saline) for 33 days. After serial behavioral tests, fecal short-chain fatty acid levels and AD-related pathology were assessed in these mice. Results Our findings show that intracerebroventricular injection of streptozotocin accelerated cognitive dysfunction associated with increasing levels of glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta (GSK3β) activity, tau protein phosphorylation at the T231 site (pT231), amyloid-β (Aβ) deposition, amyloid-β protein precursor (AβPP), β-site AβPP-cleaving enzyme (BACE1), gliosis, fecal propionic acid (PPA) levels and cognition-related neuronal loss and decreasing postsynaptic density protein 95 (PSD95) levels in 3 × Tg-AD mice. PS128 supplementation effectively prevented the damage induced by intracerebroventricular injection of streptozotocin in 3 × Tg-AD mice. Conclusions Based on the experimental results, intracerebroventricular injection of streptozotocin accelerates the progression of AD in the 3 × Tg-AD mice, primarily by increasing the levels of gliosis, which were mediated by the propionic acid and glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta pathways. PS128 supplementation prevents damage induced by intracerebroventricular injection of streptozotocin by regulating the propionic acid levels, glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta activity, and gliosis in 3 × Tg-AD mice. Therefore, we suggest that PS128 supplementation is a potential strategy to prevent and/or delay the progression of AD.

Acute kidney injury (AKI) causes severe morbidity and mortality for which new therapeutic strategies are needed. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), arachidonic acid (ARA), and their metabolites have various effects in kidney injury, but their molecular mechanisms are largely unknown. Here, we report that 14 (15)-epoxyeicosatrienoic acid [14 (15)-EET] and 19 (20)-epoxydocosapentaenoic acid [19 (20)-EDP], the major epoxide metabolites of ARA and DHA, respectively, have contradictory effects on kidney injury in a murine model of ischemia/reperfusion (I/R)-caused AKI. Specifically, 14 (15)-EET mitigated while 19 (20)-EDP exacerbated I/R kidney injury. Manipulation of the endogenous 19 (20)-EDP or 14 (15)-EET by alteration of their degradation or biosynthesis with selective inhibitors resulted in anticipated effects. These observations are supported by renal histological analysis, plasma levels of creatinine and urea nitrogen, and renal NGAL. The 14 (15)-EET significantly reversed the I/R-caused reduction in glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK3β) phosphorylation in murine kidney, dose-dependently inhibited the hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R)-caused apoptosis of murine renal tubular epithelial cells (mRTECs), and reversed the H/R-caused reduction in GSK3β phosphorylation in mRTECs. In contrast, 19 (20)-EDP dose-dependently promoted H/R-caused apoptosis and worsened the reduction in GSK3β phosphorylation in mRTECs. In addition, 19 (20)-EDP was more metabolically stable than 14 (15)-EET in vivo and in vitro. Overall, these epoxide metabolites of ARA and DHA function conversely in I/R-AKI, possibly through their largely different metabolic stability and their opposite effects in modulation of H/R-caused RTEC apoptosis and GSK3β phosphorylation. This study provides AKI patients with promising therapeutic strategies and clinical cautions.

Physical force has emerged as a key regulator of tissue homeostasis, and plays an important role in embryogenesis, tissue regeneration, and disease progression. Currently, the details of protein interactions under elevated physical stress are largely missing, therefore, preventing the fundamental, molecular understanding of mechano-transduction. This is in part due to the difficulty isolating large quantities of cell lysates exposed to force-bearing conditions for biochemical analysis. We designed a simple, easy-to-fabricate, large-scale cell stretch device for the analysis of force-sensitive cell responses. Using proximal biotinylation (BioID) analysis or phospho-specific antibodies, we detected force-sensitive biochemical changes in cells exposed to prolonged cyclic substrate stretch. For example, using promiscuous biotin ligase BirA* tagged α-catenin, the biotinylation of myosin IIA increased with stretch, suggesting the close proximity of myosin IIA to α-catenin under a force bearing condition. Furthermore, using phospho-specific antibodies, Akt phosphorylation was reduced upon stretch while Src phosphorylation was unchanged. Interestingly, phosphorylation of GSK3β, a downstream effector of Akt pathway, was also reduced with stretch, while the phosphorylation of other Akt effectors was unchanged. These data suggest that the Akt-GSK3β pathway is force-sensitive. This simple cell stretch device enables biochemical analysis of force-sensitive responses and has potential to uncover molecules underlying mechano-transduction.

Remote ischemic conditioning has been convincingly shown to render the myocardium resistant to a subsequent more severe sustained episode of ischemia. Compared with other organs, little is known regarding the effect of transient liver ischemic conditioning. We proposed the existence of cardioprotection induced by remote liver conditioning. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into sham-operated control (no further hepatic intervention) and remote liver ischemic conditioning groups. For liver ischemic conditioning, three cycles of 5 min of liver ischemia-reperfusion stimuli were conducted before-(liver preconditioning), post-myocardial ischemia (liver postconditioning), or in combination of both (liver preconditioning + liver postconditioning). Rats were exposed to 45 min of left anterior descending coronary artery occlusion, followed by 3 h of reperfusion thereafter. ECG and hemodynamics were measured throughout the experiment. The coronary artery was reoccluded at the end of reperfusion for infarct size determination. Blood samples were taken for serum lactate dehydrogenase and creatine kinase-MB test. Heart tissues were taken for apoptosis measurements and Western blotting. Our data demonstrate that liver ischemic preconditioning, postconditioning, or a combination of both, offered strong cardioprotection, as evidenced by reduction in infarct size and cardiac tissue damage, recovery of cardiac function, and inhibition of apoptosis after ischemia-reperfusion. Moreover, liver ischemic conditioning increased cardiac (not hepatic) glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β) phosphorylation. Accordingly, inhibition of GSK-3β mimicked the cardioprotective action of liver conditioning. These results demonstrate that remote liver ischemic conditioning protected the heart against ischemia and reperfusion injury via GSK-3β-dependent cell-survival signaling pathway.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Remote ischemic conditioning protects hearts against ischemia and reperfusion (I/R) injury. However, it is unclear whether ischemic conditioning of visceral organs such as the liver, the largest metabolic organ in the body, can produce cardioprotection. This is the first study to show the cardioprotective effect of remote liver ischemic conditioning in a rat model of myocardial I/R injury. We also, for the first time, demonstrated these protective properties are associated with glycogen synthase kinase-3β-dependent cell-survival signaling pathway.

The ErbB3 receptor-binding protein EBP1 encodes two alternatively spliced isoforms P48 and P42. While there is evidence of differential roles for these isoforms in tumorigenesis, little is known about their underlying mechanisms. Here, we demonstrate that EBP1 isoforms interact with the SCF-type ubiquitin ligase FBXW7 in distinct ways to exert opposing roles in tumorigenesis. EBP1 P48 bound to the WD domain of FBXW7 as an oncogenic substrate of FBXW7. EBP1 P48 binding sequestered FBXW7α to the cytosol, modulating its role in protein degradation and attenuating its tumor suppressor function. In contrast, EBP1 P42 bound to both the F-box domain of FBXW7 as well as FBXW7 substrates. This adapter function of EBP1 P42 stabilized the interaction of FBXW7 with its substrates and promoted FBXW7-mediated degradation of oncogenic targets, enhancing its overall tumor-suppressing function. Overall, our results establish distinct physical and functional interactions between FBXW7 and EBP1 isoforms, which yield their mechanistically unique isoform-specific functions of EBP1 in cancer. Cancer Res; 77(8); 1983-96. ©2017 AACR.

Mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) has an essential role in dendritic mRNA translation and participates in mechanisms underlying alcohol-drinking and reconsolidation of alcohol-related memories. Here, we report that excessive alcohol consumption increases the translation of downstream targets of mTORC1, including collapsin response mediator protein-2 (CRMP-2), in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) of rodents. We show that alcohol-mediated induction of CRMP-2 translation is mTORC1-dependent, leading to increased CRMP-2 protein levels. Furthermore, we demonstrate that alcohol intake also blocks glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β)-phosphorylation of CRMP-2, which results in elevated binding of CRMP-2 to microtubules and a concomitant increase in microtubule content. Finally, we show that systemic administration of the CRMP-2 inhibitor lacosamide, or knockdown of CRMP-2 in the NAc decreases excessive alcohol intake. These results suggest that CRMP-2 in the NAc is a convergent point that receives inputs from two signaling pathways, mTORC1 and GSK-3β, that in turn drives excessive alcohol-drinking behaviors.

To investigate the mechanism of ketamine promoting Alzheimer’s-like neurodegeneration in mice. 24 male 8 w old Kunming mice of specific pathogen-free grade were randomly divided into a blank control group (control group) and a ketamine intervention group (experimental group) according to the random number table, 12 mice in each group. The mice in the experimental group were given ketamine injection at the dose of 30 mg/kg. Mice in the control group were given an equal volume of normal saline injection. The intervention was conducted once a day for consecutive 6 mo. The behavioral changes of the mice in the two groups were compared. Western blot was used to detect the expression levels of tau (phospho Thr231), tau (phospho S396), tau (phospho Ser404), glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta, glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta (phospho ser9) and protein phosphatase 2A proteins in the brain tissue of hippocampus and the ratio of phosphorylated tau protein to tau protein was calculated. The expressions of beta-amyloid protein and tau protein in the hippocampus were observed by immunohistochemistry. The results of the Morris water maze showed that the escape latency of mice in both groups was gradually decreased and the escape latency of mice in the control group was lower than that in the experimental group. Besides, the times of crossing target platform and the proportion of activity time in target quadrant of mice in the experimental group were lower than those in the control group. At the same time, compared with the control group, the expression levels of tau (phospho Thr231) and tau (phospho Ser404) were decreased in the experimental group, and the expressions of tau (phospho S396), glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta, glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta (phospho ser9) and protein phosphatase 2A proteins were increased. Compared with the control group, the expression of beta-amyloid protein in the experimental group was significantly reduced and the opalescence density of beta-amyloid protein was significantly lower than that in the control group (p<0.05). Long-term use of ketamine can lead to up-regulated expression of beta-amyloid protein and tau protein in mice hippocampus, which may induce hyperphosphorylation of tau protein at Thr231, S396 and S404 by activating glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta and inhibiting protein phosphatase 2A, causing cognitive function decline in mice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mitochondria damage and apoptosis were found associated with sevoflurane induced neurotoxicity in developing brains of rodent and neuro cell lines. The detailed upstream mechanism remains unclear. This study explored whether sevoflurane induces neurotoxicity by activating a GSK3β (glycogen synthase kinase 3β)/Drp1 (dynamin-related protein-1)-dependent mitochondrial fission and apoptosis. Our results showed that sevoflurane exposure promoted mitochondria fission in hippocampus of neonatal mice, resulted in a prolonged escape latency from P32 (32-day-postnatal) to P35, and decreased platform crossing times on P36 as compared to the control treatment. Additionally, sevoflurane upregulated GSK3β stability and activation, promoted phosphorylation of Drp1 at Ser616 along with its translocation to mitochondria and resulted in increasing cytochrome c and cleaved casepase-3 in hippocampus of neonatal mice and in human SK-N-SH cells. Simultaneously, sevoflurane promoted the interaction between Drp1 and GSK3β. Furthermore, GSK3β activated phosphorylation of Drp1 at Ser616, induced mitochondrial fission, loss of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) and apoptosis in SK-N-SH cells, which was attenuated by TDZD-8, an inhibitor of GSK3β. In conclusion, sevoflurane induced neurotoxicity links to a GSK3β/Drp1 dependent mitochondrial fission and apoptosis. [Display omitted] • The potential risk of sevoflurane induced neurotoxicity in developing brain is a crucial issue in pediatric anesthesia. • This study demonstrated a novel upstream mechanism on sevoflurane-induced mitochondrial abnormalities and neurotoxicity. • Sevoflurane induced neurotoxicity in neonatal mice links to a GSK3β/Drp1-dependent mitochondrial fission and apoptosis. • Our results may contribute to the safety considerations on sevoflurane anesthesia in developing brain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective To explore the molecular mechanism of naringenin in preventing and treating insulin resistance in rats with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) based on the aspect of phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (AKT) pathway. Methods SD rats were injected with dehydroepiandrosterone subcutaneously on the back daily to establish a PCOS model. The model rats were randomly divided into the model group, the naringenin group, the PI3K inhibitor group, and the naringenin+PI3K inhibitor group, with 15 rats in each group. At the same time, 15 SD rats were subcutaneously injected with oil 2 mL/kg on the neck and back, and they were used as the normal control group. The levels of blood glucose, insulin, blood lipids, and reproductive hormones were detected in each group. The morphology of ovary was observed with HE staining. The positive expression of p-PI3K was detected with immunohistochemical method. The protein expression of PI3K/AKT pathway phosphorylated protein, and pathway related protein-insulin receptor substrate-1 (IRS-1), glycogen synthase-3β (GSK-3β), glucose transporter factor-4 (GLUT4), phosphatase and tensin homologue deleted on chromosome 10 (PTEN) were detected with Western blot assay. Results Compared with the normal control group, the ovarian tissue of the model group showed symptoms of pathological damage such as follicular cystic dilatation, decreased corpus luteum number and granulosa cell layer, and increased atretic follicles, increased levels of blood lipid and blood sugar, increased insulin resistance, and disordered secretion of reproductive hormones, decreased PI3K/AKT pathway phosphorylated proteins and pathway-related proteins IRS-1, GSK-3β phosphorylated protein and GLUT4 protein expression, and increased expression of PTEN protein (P＜0.05). Naringenin could reduce pathological damage such as cystic dilatation of follicles, promote PI3K/AKT pathway phosphorylated proteins and pathway-related proteins IRS-1, GSK-3β phosphorylated protein and GLUT4 protein expression, improve the disorder of reproductive hormone secretion, reduce insulin resistance, blood glucose and blood lipid levels and PTEN protein expression (P＜0.05). PI3K inhibitors could attenuate the above effects of naringenin (P＜0.05). Conclusion Naringenin can promote the activation of PI3K/AKT pathway, reduce blood glucose and blood lipid levels and insulin resistance, and improve reproductive hormone disorders and ovarian polycystic changes in PCOS rats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The protective mechanism of ginsenoside Rg1 for Alzheimer's disease induced by Amyloid β-Protein has rarely been reported. To evaluate the cerebroprotective effects of ginsenoside Rg1 on Alzheimer's disease rats. Male Sprague Dawley rats were randomly divided into 5 groups (n=10). Alzheimer's disease model was established by injecting Amyloid β-Protein into the hippocampal CA1 area. Rg1 group, specific phosphoinositide 3-kinase inhibitor LY294002 group and Rg1 plus LY294002 group were intraperitoneally injected with corresponding drugs, once daily for 28 consecutive d. The spatial learning and memory abilities were studied by water maze and platform tests respectively. The pathological changes of hippocampal CA1 area were observed by hematoxylin and eosin staining. Neuronal apoptosis was detected by Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP Nick-End Labeling assay. Protein kinase B and Glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta protein expressions were measured by Western blotting. Compared with model group, the learning and memory abilities of Rg1 group were significantly improved (p<0.05), and the abnormal morphology of neurons in Rg1 group and their apoptosis were significantly relieved (p<0.05). Compared with model group, the superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase levels of Rg1 group increased significantly, whereas that of Malondialdehyde decreased significantly (p<0.05). Compared with model group, the Protein kinase B and Glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta phosphorylation levels of Rg1 group significantly increased (p<0.05). LY294002 and Rg1+LY294002 groups had similar results (p>0.05). Ginsenoside Rg1 may mitigate Amyloid β-Protein induced Alzheimer's disease by activating the phosphoinositide 3-kinase/Protein kinase B/Glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta signaling pathway, inhibit neuronal apoptosis in the hippocampus and attenuate oxidative stress, exerting cerebroprotective effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]