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This study examines the differences between solar adopters and the general public in their perceptions of solar technologies. Factor analysis confirmed the existence of the theorized dimensions of innovation perception. Discriminant analyses and post hoc comparisons were used to assess differences between adopters, nonadopters, and procrastinators. Models including these facets resulted in significant improvements over a model containing only demographic variables. Results are used to make suggestions for increasing the pace of solar adoption.

A public opinion survey of three California cities assessed the extent of public concern over risks associated with modern technologies. A substantial majority of respondents were concerned with each of ten areas, with concern being more widespread among women and less widespread among the more educated. Respondents relied heavily on television news and newspapers for information and varied in rating the reliability of different information sources, with university scientists being the most highly regarded. Decisions on public safety regarding these risks were influenced mainly by federal and state officials, the news media, and business. People believed that they were largely ignored in the process. Despite this feeling, political participation rates were not associated with the extent of concern over the dangers of technological risk. Low participation and high regard for authority raise the issue of the role of the expert in society.

The adoption/nonadoption of technical innovations was examined in the Pacific Coast trawl fishery using a model based on recent conceptual issues raised in the innovation diffusion literature. Included in the model were variables measuring each fisherman's personal characteristics and situation, attitudes about fishing, and perceptions of each innovation's characteristics. Data were collected in 83 personal interviews during spring 1984, a period of economic crisis in the fleet. The results indicate that a different subset of independent variables explained the adoption of each innovation. This appears to be due to the innovation-by-innovation differences in the match between the potential adopter and the innovation. The effect of variables on adoption/nonadoption varied across innovations. The characteristics of potential adopters and the characteristics of the innovations, as perceived by the potential adopters, were both important determinants of adoption/nonadoption.

(1962). Predictability of Multidimensional Absolute Identifications From Information Transmitted with Unidimensional Stimuli. The Journal of Psychology: Vol. 54, No. 2, pp. 309-316.

The relative efficiency was determined of detection of changes in duration of moderately intense auditory, cutaneous, mixed auditory and cutaneous, and simultaneous auditory and cutaneous stimuli. Detection of differences in cutaneous stimuli were appreciably less efficient than detection of differences in auditory stimuli. Detection of simultaneous auditory-cutaneous signals was similar to that for auditory signals alone. Detection of auditory and cutaneous signals in the mixed conditions was similar to detection of such signals presented separately. There was some evidence for adaptation or habituation to cutaneous stimulation. When detection of differences in stimuli is employed as a basis for responding, the auditory modality should be employed rather than the cutaneous modality when possible. The generality of this finding should be explored by experiments involving other discriminations, different presentation rates of relevant and irrelevant signals, and different task durations.

Most experiments on monitoring behavior have employed visual signals. Because the visual modaliry is frequently pre-empted by task requirements, the characteristics of vigilance warning signals for non-visual modalities should be ascertained. Broadbent (1958) has suggested that there may be less deterioration of performance in monitoring auditory signals than in monitoring visual ones, as it is harder to not listen to a noise than not to look at a visual cue. The cutaneous channel also might have advanrages in that it is less likely to be occupied by other task requirements than is either the visual or auditory channel. While there have been very few vigilance experiments involving cutaneous cues, there have been a number employing auditory ones. In general, it appears that when 0's task was to report the presence or absence of an auditory signal, no decrement as a function of time on task was observed (Elliott, 1957; Martz 8: Harris, 1961 ). When changes in auditory signals were to be detected, a progressive deterioration of performance was reported (Solandt & Partridge, 1946; Mackworch, 1950; McGrath, 1960; Buckner, Harabedian, 8: McGrath, 1960). A similar generalizarion can probably be made regarding monitoring of visual signals (see Broadbent, 1958). Some recent experiments have reported conflicting results, however. The experiments by Elliott and by Martz and Harris, cited above, involved an ascending method of limits rather than a simple derection of the stimulus. In experiments by Loeb and Schmidt ( 1960a, b), which required Ss to respond rapidly to the presence of faint [lo db, sensation level (SL)] low frequency pure tones, there was a small but significant progressive increase in response time to the signals. Similarly, McCormack (1959) has reported a progressive increase in response time for detection of the presence of faint visual signals. In a more recent experiment (Hawkes & Loeb, 1961) involving response to slightly louder bursts of white noise (of rapid onset and decay) no progressive increase was exhibired. Whether the discrepancy in the findings in these experiments was due to differences in intensity, rise time, or spectrum of the signals was not established. In the latter experiment (Hawkes & Loeb, 1961), 0s also were required to respond to electrical cutaneous stimuli. Interestingly, though the electrical 'This investigation was aided by a contract between the Office of the Army Surgeon General and the University of Louisville. Appreciation for help in data colleaion is expressed to D. Kaufrnan, C. Roulston, C. Gettys, and E. A. Schmidt, and for administrarive support to R. H. Bixler.

Respiration rate and heart rate changes induced by administration of autonomically active drugs at usual clinical dosage levels tended to be significantly correlated with temporal judgments when using the method of pro uction. No correlation was found with blood pressure or skin temperature or when judging time with the reproduction method. Duration judgments with the method of production, in which time estimates are based upon internal events, are significantly correlated with rhythmic physiological activity when no external cues of time are present. (Author)

Phenomenological personality theory is based upon the importance of determining how an individual views his world and how he reacts to these perceptions. Hawkes (2) has indicated the importance of applying this frame of reference to the study of interpersonal behavior in the family setting and has described a conceptual framework for research into family influences upon the personal and social development of children. One of the variables he cited was control of behavior. By control of behavior, reference is made to the physical and psychological guides and restrictions which the child perceives as being placed upon him by his parents and other family members. Measurement of this variable was begun by Hawkes. He conducted extensive interviews with io-year-old children and found that certain items were productive in obtaining responses about children's views of methods of control used by their parents and the children's evaluation of those

Ten Ss made absolute judgments of electrocutaneous stimuli consisting of from one to three simultaneous stimulations of six loci. There were three loci in symmetrical positions on either side of S's body—one on each shoulder blade, one on each arm between the elbow and the shoulder, and one on each side of the body just above the belt line. Each S responded with one of two response alphabets during 11 sessions of 41 trials each, over a period of three days. Differences between the two response alphabets were not significant, and neither were differences attributable to the interaction of the response alphabets with the number of loci stimulated. Increases in the percentages of erroneous responses with increases in the number of loci stimulated were both large and statistically significant; these increases were interpreted as evidence of a central mechanism of cutaneous masking.

Vigilance for infrequent auditory or electrical cutaneous stimuli at both weak and moderate intensities was investigated. Detection probability was very high for moderate intensity signals and weak auditory stimuli. Errors significantly increased with time on task for faint cutaneous signals. Increase of the intersignal interval significantly increased the number of errors. An explanation of the results is suggested in terms of greater habituation for weak or relatively infrequent signals.

IN SOCIAL science research it is frequently desirable to retest the findings of previous studies for a different sample than the one used in the previous research. Frequently greater confidence can be established for the findings, or a wider range of generality may result from such retesting. Recently an opportunity occurred for retesting Terman's hypothesis that personality characteristics are related to marital satisfaction.' Although this hypothesis is general, the results of the present study should be of interest because the sample used in the present investigation was quite different from the one employed by Terman or later by Burgess and Wallin.

The importance of parental attitudes in the development of personal and social behavior is one of the basic tenets in the fields of child development and parent education. In the clinician's therapy room this relationship seems obvious. In the classroom a teacher may often be sure the reason "Johnny can't" is because of parental attitudes. But can the generalizations from the clinician or from the teacher or, for that matter, from studies of atypical samples of families and children in general be valid guides for assessing the behavior of children?

On the strength of assertions which have been made about the effects of inadequate mothering, it might be hypothesized that, if maternal deprivation does occur, the children who experience it should reveal the results of that inadequacy in discriminable variations in personality structure and content. In the absence of such observable, discriminable variations in personality, any assumption of maternal deprivation seems unwarranted, regardless of the fact that unusual mothering conditions may actually have occurred. In an earlier report (5) a research design was described, the central objective of which was to ascertain both short-term and long-range effects on children of an unusual, noncontinuous mothering experience during infancy. The major condition of that unusual mothering experience was residence in a home management house on a university campus, prior to being placed in private adoptive homes. During the period of residence in the home management house, each infant's care was provided by many different mother figures, each having responsibility for the baby for a few days at a time. At the same time as the longitudinal study of these subjects has been going on, efforts have been made to locate children who resided in the home management houses over the past few years and to evaluate their present status in comparison with children who did not experience such an unusual mothering situation in infancy. One purpose for including this group of subjects in the over-all study is to make more meaningful any findings

Relative differential intensive limens were obtained at three frequencies and two intensities for three stimulus patterns involving fluctuation of a steady tone and three patterns involving separate stimuli. The same observers were utilized in all cases; in Experiment I, signals were presented through earphones. Somewhat lower thresholds were obtained for fluctuating intensity patterns than for separate stimuli patterns, thresholds tended to be lower at the higher intensity level, and thresholds were lower for patterns allowing greater opportunity for comparison within the patterns. When similar thresholds were obtained for patterns presented through speakers (Experiment II), thresholds were smaller, the influence of intensity was smaller, and the influence of (presentation) pattern type was less consistent. Significance of the findings is discussed.

(1958). Children's Personality Adjustment and the Socio-Economic Status of Their Families. The Journal of Genetic Psychology: Vol. 92, No. 2, pp. 149-159.

Although it is an old test, the Rogers Test of Personality Adjustment is still used in child guidance and school guidance programs. Yet, there have been few subsequent publications relating to this test since Rogers' original report (5). Recently this test was used in a study based on a sample of fifth grade children. The results of this study provided an opportunity to determine whether the norms given by Rogers in 1931 are still adequate for use today.

(1960). An Evaluation of the Magnitude Estimation Technique. The Journal of Psychology: Vol. 50, No. 2, pp. 303-313.

Previous research has indicated that boys, in various ways, tend to be more critical or less satisfied with their home conditions and their relations with their parents than girls (2, 4, 11). There is also evidence to support the hypothesis that children feel closer to their mothers or tend to rate their relationships with their mothers in a more favorable manner than similar relationships with their fathers (2, 4, 8, 11, 12). Data were recently gathered which permitted retesting these two sets of findings. While the studies referred to above were conducted with urban children or young adults, the present investigation was based on a sample of rural and small-town children. These data are given in the present report in the form of children's responses to some of the items included in the Hawkes-Lewis scale (6). Detailed descriptions of the sample design and methodology used in this investigation have been described elsewhere (I, 7). It should be noted that the sample included 730 fifth grade children from Iowa, Ohio, Kansas, and Wisconsin.

(1960). Maximum It for Absolute Identification of Cutaneous Electrical Intensity Level. The Journal of Psychology: Vol. 49, No. 2, pp. 279-288.

(1961). δ T for Electrical Cutaneous Stimulation. The Journal of Psychology: Vol. 51, No. 2, pp. 263-271.

In our frenzy to revamp the schools so that we can keep pace with Russia, is there not a real danger that we lose much of the progress made in fostering over-all development of the child? We must not lose sight of the “how” of learning when we are re-thinking the “what” of learning. The child not only brings his family problems, his fatigue, his peer problems, his concerns about his development but also his need for work … for rest … for play.

In 1980 an event, heightened by its occurrence in California, which produces a quarter of the food grown in the United States, became an incident of international interest. The Mediterranean fruit fly, a dangerous agricultural pest, infested the densely-populated Santa Clara Valley. The State of California responded by spraying pesticides from aircraft over residential neighborhoods, resulting in a successful, but lengthy, multi-million dollar eradication program. Medfly’s estimated damage exceeded millions of dollars to the agricultural industry and demanded use of pesticides, a technology perennially under public and scientific scrutiny. Aerial spraying in urban areas increased the likelihood that sensitive non-target organisms, namely the Valley’s human inhabitants would be exposed to the chemicals. This provided us with the opportunity to assess perception of risk at the time residents were undergoing aerial spraying. Since that time we have seized the opportunity to obtain citizens’ views of eradication programs for other voracious pest, using a variety of pesticides and application methods. This paper discusses results of the study examining attitudes of the general public and an “elite” sample of technical experts and decision-makers. The major questions addressed herein are: Do the public, technicians, decision-makers and scientists fundamentally disagree on the issue of risks, specifically those attributable to pesticides? Is there agreement among the elite respondents? Where do the major disparities and congruities of attitudes lie?

The dependence of tactile sensitivity on skin temperature could be due to a central or a peripheral effect. Maximal cutaneous sensitivity for pressure or mechanical vibration is obtained at about 36 C, with a shift in either direction resulting in an elevation of threshold. In the present study, raising skin temperature of the finger or forearm to as much as 45 C had no effect on the threshold for electrical cutaneous stimulation. It is concluded that the dependence of sensitivity to pressure or mechanical vibration on skin temperature is a peripheral effect. Further, electrical current applied to the intact skin apparently affects nerves directly without requiring transduction by a chemical (or other) process at the receptor. It is suggested that the effect of temperature, with other kinds of cutaneous stimulation, is on chemical substances contained within the receptors. Submitted on July 20, 1961

Six Air Force Academy cadets were confined for 15 days in a simulated advanced-system crew compartment while following a schedule of 4-hours on duty and 2-hours off, and two 5-man crews of USAF pilots were confined for 30 days while alternating shifts on a schedule of 4-hours on duty and 4-hours off. While on duty the opera tors were tested with a battery of 6 performance tasks, 2 of which required interactions among crewmembers in the form of exchanges of information, cooperation, and temporal coordination. In addition, the data of the present studies were compared with those of two previous 15-day tests of two crews who worked the 4-2 schedule while being tested with a battery of 5 individual performance tasks. The data suggest that with proper control of selection and motivational fac tors, crews can work effectively for periods of at least 2 weeks and probably longer using a schedule of 4-hours on duty and 2-hours off. Crews can work even more effectively for periods of at least a month and quite probably for 2 or 3 months using a schedule of 4-hours on duty and 4-hours off, and with this schedule less demand ing controls of selection and motivational fac tors are required.

Detections, false responses, and latencies were measured in a 1-hr. auditory vigilance task following ingestion of either a stimulating drug, one of two tranquilizers, or a placebo. Changes in performance under the placebo were explicable in terms of shifts toward conservatism in S’s criteria for responding; under the tranquilizers, similar shifts in criteria occurred as well as decrements in effective sensitivity. Under the stimu lant, performance quality remained essentially constant during the 1-hr. vigil.

The Mediterranean Fruit Fly eradication program provided an opportunity to assess public attitudes toward technological risks. This is a case study of 126 residents from a metropolitan area who, during the 1981-82 Mediterranean Fruitfly Crisis, were undergoing exposure to aerial spraying with a pesticide. While only one-third of the subjects expressed fear of danger to their health and to the environment, 94 percent undertook one or more major behavioral precautions. Individual differences in risk perception were related to perceived benefits of the program, political ideology, faith in experts, and media exposure. Individual differences in risk acceptability varied primarily as a function of risk perception. Federal, state, and business agencies were perceived as influential in decision making, with individual citizens having little opportunity for input. Glenn R. Hawkes and Marc Pilisuk are Professors in the Department of Applied Behavioral Sciences, University of California, Davis. Martha C. Stiles is a staff researcher and Curt Acredolo is a research psychologist in the same department. The authors gratefully acknowledge the contribution of Gregg Nerase and Guy Whitlow. Funding was supplied in part by a grant from the California Department of Food and Agriculture (#1786) and the California Agricultural Experiment Station. A copy of the questionnaire may be obtained from the Department of Applied Behavioral Sciences, UC Davis. Public Opinion Quarterly Vol. 48:443-451 ? 1984 by the Trustees of Columbia University Published by Elsevier Science Publishing Co., Inc. 0033-362X/84/0048-443/$2.50 This content downloaded from 157.55.39.161 on Mon, 23 May 2016 05:41:17 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 444 GLENN R. HAWKES, ET AL. eradication and was exacerbated by the extensive media coverage of disagreements between public officials in local, state, and federal governments, agricultural business groups, scientific experts, and environmental groups.1 Opinions diverged over the fact that spraying of such duration had never been tried in populous urban centers and long-term effects had not yet been adequately studied. In addition, stripping fruit trees, quarantining, and releasing sterile flies had been largely ineffective and publicly criticized. Given the magnitude of such coverage, the eradication program was as much a political-media issue as it was a human health and environmental one. Using both attitude assessments (Fishbein, 1967) and behavioral measures, we seized the opportunity to study persons exposed to a technological event of unknown risk which was generating considerable debate and media attention. Risk Perception and Acceptability It is known that risk perception varies as a function of sex, age, and education. Women express greater risk avoidance than men (e.g., Otway, et al., 1975); and the youthful population voices greater concern (Meltsner, 1978; Van Liere and Dunlap, 1980), as do those with greater formal education (Morgan, 1967; Salcedo, 1971). Beyond these demographic differences, however, it appears that degree of confrontation and hazard-specific experience are negatively related to risk perception (e.g., Golant and Burton, 1969). Maderthaner, et al. (1976, 1978) view this as a case of "cognitive dissonance" (Festinger, 1957). "It is easier for people to change their beliefs and attitudes about living in a potential risk situation than to change their residence" (Maderthaner, et al., 1976, 1978). Meltsner (1978), however, proposes that increased exposure to or experience with a specific dangerous condition serves to reinforce indifference toward that condition, unless serious personal damage is incurred. Acceptability of risk does not necessarily covary directly with the degree of risk perceived. Perceived benefit may make even high risks acceptable (Vlek and Stallen, 1980). The work of Otway, et al., (1978) on nuclear power supports this hypothesis. They found that positive attitude could be attributed mainly to the perception of significant "economic and technological benefits." Negative attitudes, on the other hand, could be attributed to the perception of significant risk, particularly psychological risk. 1 Two former governors of California had much political stake in the outcome. They positioned themselves at polar ends, and the drama of the controversy between President Reagan and Governor Brown made this a media event of international proportions. This content downloaded from 157.55.39.161 on Mon, 23 May 2016 05:41:17 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms ASSESSING RISK: MEDFLY ERADICATION PROGRAM 445 Lowrance (1976) suggests, in addition, that voluntariness of exposure influences acceptance: "We are loath to let others do unto us what we happily do to ourselves." This tendency was also revealed in the study of perceived risks of nuclear power facilities (Otway and Fishbein, 1977). These facilities were viewed as hazardous largely because risk exposure was involuntary, and Swaton (1976) reports that most people see themselves as having minimal personal influence over technological risk situations.

Various kinds of institutional child socialization facilities have risen over the past decade in response to the demand for multiple options by women and other social circumstances. Tasks that were formerly assumed by the extended family are gradually being supplanted by bureaucracies due to changes in the extended family and greater emphasis upon the more mobile nuclear family. This paper examines Eugene Litwak's theory of shared function which attempts to establish a cooperative relationship between families and those bureaucracies created to help, and, in some cases, supplant the family in tasks traditionally tied to the family alone, such as socialization.

Familial power structure in Mexican and Mexican-American farm labor families was explored by standardized interview to determine if the commonly held view of husband dominance could be substantiated. In 76 cases from California state operated migrant family labor camps egalitarianism was by far the most common mode in both decision-making and action-taking. Findings suggest that dominancesubmission patterns are much less universal than previously assumed or never existed but were an ideal or are undergoing radical change.

(96) Ray E. Trussell, Jack Elinson, and Morton L. Levin, "Comparison of Various Methods of Estimating the Prevalence of Chronic Disease in a Community," American Journal of Public Health, 46 (February, 1956), 173-182. (97) Urban Life Research Institute, Nursing Services in a Large Urban Hospital, New Orleans: Tulane University, 1954. (98) L. Wes Wager, "The Measurement of the Job Satisfaction of Professional Nurses," Research Studies of the State College of Washington, 20 (June, 1952), 45-55.