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Chronic hypoparathyroidism is characterized by low serum calcium, increased serum phosphorus, and inappropriately low or decreased serum parathyroid hormone. This rare disorder is associated with a variety of complications. The prevalence, incidence, mortality, financial burden, and epidemiology of complications of this disorder are not well understood. This narrative review summarizes current information on the epidemiology and complications of chronic hypoparathyroidism. The reported prevalence of chronic hypoparathyroidism ranges from 6.4–37/100,000, and the incidence is reported to be 0.8–2.3/100,000/year. Mortality is not increased in studies from Denmark or South Korea but was increased in studies from Scotland and Sweden. The financial burden of this disorder is substantial because of increased health care resource utilization in two studies but not well quantitated. Recognized complications include hypercalciuria, nephrocalcinosis, kidney stones, and chronic kidney disease; low bone turnover and possibly upper extremity fractures; cardiac and vascular calcifications; basal ganglia calcifications, cataracts, infections, neuropsychiatric complications, and difficulties with pregnancy. This review concludes that chronic hypoparathyroidism is a rare disorder associated with significant morbidity that may not increase overall mortality but is associated with a substantial financial burden.

The coronavirus disease, COVID-19, has caused widespread and sustained disruption to healthcare, not only in the delivery of emergency care, but knock-on consequences have resulted in major delays to the delivery of elective care, including surgery. COVID-19 has accelerated novel pathways for delivering clinical services, many of which have an increased reliance on technology. COVID-19 has impacted care for patients with both hypoparathyroidism and hyperparathyroidism. The role of vitamin D in the prevention of severe COVID-19 infection has also been widely debated. Severe hypocalcemia can be precipitated by infection in patients with hypoparathyroidism. With this in mind, compliance with medical management, including calcium and vitamin D supplementation, is crucial. Technology in the form of text message reminders and smartphone apps may have a key role in ensuring this. Furthermore, clinicians should ensure that patients are educated on the symptoms of hypocalcemia and the steps needing to be taken should these symptoms be experienced. Patients with primary hyperparathyroidism (PHPT) should be educated on the symptoms of hypercalcemia, as well as the importance of remaining adequately hydrated. In addition, patients should be reassured that the postponement of parathyroidectomy is likely to have negligible impact on their condition; for those with symptomatic hypercalcemia, cinacalcet can be considered as an interim measure.

Primary hyperparathyroidism (PHPT) is classically associated with both an elevated or 'inappropriately normal' parathyroid hormone (PTH) level and raised serum calcium. However, in clinical practice, increasing numbers of patients present with raised PTH but normal serum calcium, renal function and vitamin D; this is known as normocalcaemic PHPT (nPHPT). Studies investigating the clinical presentation of this condition have shown that patients may present with hypertension, nephrolithiasis, impaired glucose tolerance, osteoporosis and fragility fractures. The prevalence of such complications in nPHPT is similar to that in classical hypercalcaemic PHPT (hPHPT). Although the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) have developed guidelines for the management of PHPT generally, a consensus is yet to be reached on the optimal management of nPHPT specifically. A review of the literature on parathyroidectomy in the treatment of nPHPT revealed that nPHPT patients were more likely to present with multi-glandular disease and significantly less nPHPT patients had an intra-operative PTH fall of >50% compared with those with hPHPT. These findings demonstrate that patients with nPHPT are more likely to receive bilateral neck explorations and require remedial surgery compared with hPHPT patients. Following surgery, improvements in bone mineral density (BMD) and renal stones are generally observed in those with nPHPT. Where surgery is not possible, medical management with alendronate has been shown to be effective in nPHPT patients. Given the higher incidence of multi-gland disease and greater possibility of remedial surgery in nPHPT, careful consideration of risks and benefits should be made on an individualised basis and surgery should be performed by surgeons experienced in four gland exploration.

Endocrinologists have had to make rapid changes to services so that resources can be focused on the COVID-19 response to help prevent spread of the virus. Herein we provide pragmatic advice on the management of commonly encountered calcium metabolic problems and osteoporosis. Non-urgent elective appointments should be postponed, and remote consultations and digital health solutions promoted. Patients should be empowered to self-manage their conditions safely. Patients, their caregivers and healthcare providers should be directed to assured national or international online resources and specific patient groups. For patients in acute hospital settings, existing emergency guidance on the management of hyper- and hypo-calcaemia should be followed. An approach to osteoporosis management is outlined. IV zoledronic acid infusions can be delayed for 6-9 months during the pandemic. Patients established on denosumab, teriparatide and abaloparatide should continue planned therapy. In the event of supply issues with teriparatide or abaloparatide, pausing this treatment in the short term is likely to be relatively harmless, whereas delaying denosumab may cause an immediate increased risk of fracture. The challenge of this pandemic will act as a catalyst to innovate within our management of metabolic bone and mineral disorders to ensure best use of resources and resilience of healthcare systems in its aftermath.