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Purpose We investigated the acute and chronic effects of oral splint on muscle strength-endurance performance and body flexibility. Methods Twelve Pilates practitioners (age 49.5 ± 5.8 years; mass 58.6 ± 6.5 kg) were evaluated with (OS) and without (CTRL) oral splint. Before (PRE) and after (POST) 8 weeks of oral splint usage during Pilates activity, muscle strength-endurance and body flexibility were evaluated through a frontal plank exercise and a Toe-touch test in OS and CTRL. Before each test, the highest electrical activation (EMG) of masseter and temporal muscles during maximal occlusion was determined. During frontal plank, the time-to-exhaustion, the maximum voluntary activation of masticatory muscles and the time of muscles activation have been determined. Results No OS vs CTRL and PRE vs POST differences were found in the maximum voluntary activation of temporal and masseter muscles. The time-to-exhaustion in OS was longer than CTRL in both PRE (P = 0.049) and POST sessions (P = 0.043). Time of masticatory muscles activation during plank was moderately greater in OS at PRE (P = 0.020) and POST (P = 0.022), while no difference between PRE and POST emerged in both conditions. Higher muscular activation was found in OS than CTRL at PRE (P = 0.031) and POST (P = 0.031), whereas no difference between PRE and POST appeared. No effect on flexibility emerged neither acutely nor chronically. Conclusion Acute and chronic oral splint usage improved strength-endurance performance but not body flexibility. These findings suggest biomechanical and neural mechanisms influencing the muscle length and the concurrent activation potentiation, but not muscle tone and stiffness.

The current study aimed to evaluate the Italian university students’ lifestyle during the COVID-19 pandemic, considering the degree courses, chronotype, and sex. Five-hundred thirty-three participants (21.46 ± 0.18 yrs, 335 females) filled out: Godin-Shephard Leisure Time Physical Activity Questionnaire (GSL-TPAQ), Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), Mediterranean Diet Quality Index (KIDMED), Reduced Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire (rMEQ) to assess physical activity, sleep, nutrition and chronotype. Use of electronic devices, smoking, and drinking habits were also evaluated. Sports science students were more active (60.92 ± 2.96), slept better (4.40 ± 0.15), showed greater Mediterranean diet adherence (5.98 ± 0.31), and smoked less (smokers: 14.5%) than nursing students (GSL-TPAQ: 38.62 ± 2.92, PSQI: 5.29 ± 0.18, KIDMED: 4.23 ± 0.33, smokers: 27.9%). They displayed a higher percentage of beer drinkers (40% vs. 28.7%) and lower use of electronic devices (5.92 ± 0.17 vs. 9.07 ± 1.17). Evening-type students showed worse sleep (5.96 ± 0.30) and lower Mediterranean diet adherence (4.32 ± 0.52) than Neither- (PSQI: 4.58 ± 0.13, KIDMED: 5.13 ± 0.28) and Morning-types (PSQI: 4.33 ± 0.33, KIDMED: 6.71 ± 0.64). Evening-types also showed a higher percentage of smokers (29.9%) and drinkers (beer: 53.3%, wine: 45.8%, alcohol: 40.2%) than Neither- (smokers: 20.3%, beer: 31.4%, wine: 31.4%, alcohol: 23.5%) and Morning-types (smokers: 8.9%, beer: 19.6%, wine: 19.6%, alcohol: 8.9%). Evening-type males used electronic devices longer (9.10 ± 3.05) than females (6.71 ± 0.41). Females showed fewer drinkers (beer: 26.6%, wine: 29.6%) than males (beer: 49.0%, wine: 38.9%). Maintaining a correct lifestyle even in this unusual condition is essential, in particular among the Evening-type students.

Physical activity (PA) is a major health factor and studies suggest workplaces could promote PA by modifying office design, motivational strategies and technology. The present study aims to evaluate the efficiency of UP150, a multifactorial workplace intervention for the improvement and maintenance of the level of physical fitness (PF) and wellbeing. Forty-five employees were randomly divided into the experimental (EG) and control (CG) groups. The PF was assessed pre-post intervention using the cubo fitness test (CFT), the amount of PA was evaluated using the IPAQ questionnaire and accelerometers while the workload was assessed using the NASA-TLX questionnaire and psycho-physical health by using the SF-12 questionnaire. The EG worked in UP150 offices while the CG worked in their usual offices for 8 weeks. The EG and CG came back 4 weeks after the intervention for CFT retention. The EG improved CFT motor efficiency and the amount of moderate PA, while it reduced mental load. The EG retained reached motor efficiency levels 4 weeks after the intervention. No differences were found in IPAQ. The UP150 demonstrated to be a proactive environment and to be efficient in the promotion of PA, improving PF and mental health while decreasing mental load.

Physical activity (PA) is a major health factor and studies suggest workplaces could promote PA by modifying office design, motivational strategies and technology. The present study aims to evaluate the efficiency of UP150, a multifactorial workplace intervention for the improvement and maintenance of the level of physical fitness (PF) and wellbeing. Forty-five employees were randomly divided into the experimental (EG) and control (CG) groups. The PF was assessed pre-post intervention using the cubo fitness test (CFT), the amount of PA was evaluated using the IPAQ questionnaire and accelerometers while the workload was assessed using the NASA-TLX questionnaire and psycho-physical health by using the SF-12 questionnaire. The EG worked in UP150 offices while the CG worked in their usual offices for 8 weeks. The EG and CG came back 4 weeks after the intervention for CFT retention. The EG improved CFT motor efficiency and the amount of moderate PA, while it reduced mental load. The EG retained reached motor efficiency levels 4 weeks after the intervention. No differences were found in IPAQ. The UP150 demonstrated to be a proactive environment and to be efficient in the promotion of PA, improving PF and mental health while decreasing mental load.

The aim of this case series was to evaluate the effectiveness of a dry-land home-training program conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic period in Paralympic swimmers. Previous evidence showed the importance of muscular strength and power training for Paralympic swimmers due to the positive relationship between severity of impairment, swimming technique and biomechanics parameters. Specifically, we aimed to analyze: (i) the effects of a customized training regime conducted pre, during and post restrictions on upper-body muscular strength and power (one repetition maximum, mean propulsive velocity, and mean relative propulsive power) compared to a regular gym-based program; (ii) the associations between mean propulsive velocity and load during two upper body exercises in order to estimate the one repetition maximum. Four elite Paralympic swimmers were retrospectively analyzed in upper-body muscular strength, mean propulsive velocity and mean relative propulsive power in bench press and lat pull-down exercises at three time points: T0 (prior the Lockdown period), T1 (immediately after the Lockdown confinement), T2 (sixteen weeks after returning to gym training). Our findings suggest a very likely decrement in one repetition maximum, mean propulsive velocity, and mean relative propulsive power during the Lockdown period compared with the T0 period with a subsequent very likely increment in one repetition maximum after returning to gym training (T2) compared with the lockdown period (T0). Conversely, mean relative propulsive power showed an unclear improvement in all athletes in T2 compared with T1. These results were also corroborated by the Friedman’s test followed by the Dunn’s pairwise comparison that mainly showed a decrement from T0 to T1 (p < 0.05). At the same time, it appears that muscle strength and power could be rapidly restored close to the pre-lockdown levels following an adequate training program in the gym, albeit without significance (p > 0.05). Finally, the close relationship between mean propulsive velocity and load in bench press and lat pull-down exercises was also confirmed in para swimming, making a possible estimation of one repetition maximum.

The passive drag (Dp) during swimming is affected by the swimmer&rsquo, s morphology, body density and body position. We evaluated the relative contribution of morphology, body composition, and body position adjustments in the prediction of a swimmer&rsquo, s Dp. This observational study examined a sample of 60 competitive swimmers (31 male and 29 female) with a mean (&plusmn, SD) age of 15.4 &plusmn, 3.1 years. The swimmer&rsquo, s Dp was measured using an electro-mechanical towing device and the body composition was assessed using a bioelectrical impedance analyser. Body lengths and circumferences were measured in both the standing position and the simulated streamlined position. Partial correlation analysis with age as a control variable showed that Dp was largely correlated (p &lt, 0.05) with body mass, biacromial- and bi-iliac-breadth, streamline chest circumference and breadth. Body mass, Body Mass Index, chest circumference and streamline chest circumference showed a significant and moderate to strong effect (&eta, 2 &gt, 0.55) on Dp. Body mass was the best predictor of Dp explaining 69% of the variability. These results indicate that swimmers with lower Dp values were: (i) slimmer, with lower fat and fat-free mass, (ii) thinner, with lower shoulder breadth, chest circumference, and streamline trunk diameters (iii), shorter, with lower streamline height. These findings can be used for talent identification in swimming, with particular reference to the gliding performance.

Circadian rhythms influence daily behavior, psychological and physiological functions, as well as physical performance. Three chronotypes are distinguished according to the preferences people typically display for activity at certain times of day: Morning, Neither, and Evening types (M-, N- and E-types). The chronotype changes with age: eveningness tends to be stronger in youth and morningness in older age. The progressive shift toward eveningness during adolescence creates misalignment with morning society schedules and can lead to a deterioration in intellectual and physical performance. Soccer is one of the world's most popular sports practiced by adolescents and soccer workouts are usually held after school in the afternoon or evening. Performance in soccer is related to a host of factors, including physiological variables and motor skills that have a circadian variation. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of chronotype on motor skills specific to soccer, specifically whether agility, aerobic endurance, and explosive power differ among the three chronotypes in relation to the time of day. For this study 141 adolescent soccer players filled in the Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire (MEQ) for the assessment of chronotype. A subsample of 75 subjects, subdivided in M-types (n= 25), E-types (n= 25), and N-types (n= 25), performed three tests (Sargent Jump Test - SJT, Illinois Agility Test - IAT, and 6-Minutes Run Test - 6MRT) at a morning and an evening training session (9:00 am and 6:00 pm). Mixed ANOVA was used to test the interactions between chronotypes, physical performance, and time. On all tests, better performance during the morning than the evening session was observed for the M-types (

Background Subacromial space (SS) narrowing may result in unsafe contact of rotator cuff tendons and bursa with the acromion, possibly promoting rotator cuff pathologies and pain. We measured SS in asymptomatic subjects after three movements employed for shoulder muscles' training. Participants and main outcome measures Twenty-five males (age 24±5years; stature 175±8 cm; body mass 74±12 kg) underwent SS ultrasound evaluation while executing with (WL) and without (NL) 4-kg load: 90° shoulder abduction (SA) without humerus rotation (90° neutral ); 90° SA maximal humeral external rotation (90° er ); maximum SA (above 90°) during upright row (UR). For inter-operator reliability analysis, a subset of 12 subjects was assessed by two operators. Results Intra/inter-operator reliability coefficients were high (ICC>0.87; standard error of measurement range: 0.23–0.51 mm; minimum detectable change range: 0.61–1.79 mm). ANOVA revealed significant differences between loads (p = 0.003, η 2 = 0.37) and angles (p 2 = 0.72), and interaction (p = 0.004, η 2 = 0.45). Normalized SS values WL were higher at 90° er vs. 90° neutral and UR (p neutral and both 90° er (p = 0.002) and UR (p = 0.009). Conclusions When holding a 4-kg load, SS is larger at 90° er than at 90° neutral and UR shoulder abduction positions. In unloaded condition, SS at 90° neutral is reduced compared to 90° er and UR.

Drag is the resistant force that opposes a swimmer displacing through water and significantly affects swimming performance. Drag experienced during active swimming is called active drag (D a ), and its direct determination is still controversial. By contrast, drag experienced while gliding in a stable streamlined body position is defined as passive drag (D p ), and its assessment is widely agreed upon. D p reduction preserves the high velocity gained with the push-off from the starting block or wall after starting and turning or improves the gliding phase of the breaststroke cycle. Hence, this paper reviewed studies on swimming that measured D p under different conditions of gliding. In the present research, accurate descriptions of the main methods used to directly or indirectly determine D p are provided and the main advantages, limitations and critical features of each method are discussed. Since D p differs in methods but not in reported values and is consistent regardless of the measuring method, the information provided in this paper might allow coaches and practitioners to identify the most suitable method for assessing and determining the drag of their swimmers.

Strenuous exercise affects immune system and stimulates the synthesis of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin 6 (IL-6) and the anti-inflammatory cytokines, mainly interleukin 10 (IL-10). IL-6 and IL-10 fluctuations can influence sleep quality. Many genetic tracts influence the immune system response to exercise. The angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) insertion/deletion (I/D) polymorphism (rs1799752) is one of the most investigated genetic variants correlated to the physical performance and immune system. The aim of this study was to evaluate: (a) the response to an exhaustive strength exercise in terms of IL-6 and IL-10 expression in relation to ACE polymorphisms; and (b) the sleep behavior in response to an exhaustive strength exercise in relation to ACE polymorphisms. All participants were subjected to the following procedures: (a) genotyping of ACE polymorphism, (b) assay cytokine expression (IL-6 and IL-10) pre- and post-exhaustive exercise, and (c) evaluation of sleep parameters pre- and post-exhaustive exercise by actigraphy. We showed that after the exhaustive exercise: (a) the ACE I/I, I/D, and D/D genotypes underwent an increase in IL-6 expression (p

Low intensity resistance training with slow movement and tonic force generation has been shown to create blood flow restriction within muscles that may affect thermoregulation through the skin. We aimed to investigate the influence of two speeds of exercise execution on skin temperature dynamics using infrared thermography. Thirteen active males performed randomly two sessions of squat exercise (normal speed, 1s eccentric/1s concentric phase, 1s; slow speed, 5s eccentric/5s concentric phase, 5s), using ~50% of 1 maximal repetition. Thermal images of ST above muscles quadriceps were recorded at a rate of 0.05Hz before the exercise (to determine basal ST) and for 480s following the initiation of the exercise (to determine the nonsteady-state time course of ST). Results showed that ST changed more slowly during the 5s exercise (p=0.002), whereas the delta (with respect to basal) excursions were similar for the two exercises (p>0.05). In summary, our data provided a detailed nonsteady-state portrait of ST changes following squat exercises executed at two different speeds. These results lay the basis for further investigations entailing the joint use of infrared thermography and Doppler flowmetry to study the events taking place both at the skin and the muscle level during exercises executed at slow speed.

The purpose of this study was to assess the effect of prolonged sitting on the vertical jump of young basketball players. After a standard warm-up of 15 minutes, players from five basketball teams underwent countermovement jump (CMJ) and stiff leg (SL) tests (T1 time point). The tests were repeated (T2 time point) after the participants spent 20 minutes under different conditions, one by each team: playing, sitting, standing, and active while sitting. Sitting players further resumed the activity for two minutes, after which the CMJ and SL tests were repeated. Neither the playing nor the standing players showed significant differences in vertical jump capacity between T1 and T2. After being seated for 20 minutes, the jump height decreased in all seated players. After workout resumption, the sitting players' jump height was only slightly lower and not significantly different than the post-warm-up condition. Sitting on the bench after warm-up decreases the performance.

This study assessed how accurately professional swimmers can interpret instructions to swim “slow,” “moderate,” and “fast.” 8 distance swimmers (6 males, 2 females; M age = 19 yr., SD = 3) and 8 sprint swimmers (7 males, 1 female; M age = 18yr., SD = 1) performed an all-out 50-m crawl stroke and three sets of 8 × 50-m crawl stroke trials interpreting the coach's instruction to swim at slow, moderate, and fast paces. No differences were detected between groups in absolute speed. Nevertheless, distance and sprint swimmers significantly differed in speed normalized to their own 50-m all-out speed (effect sizes = 6.72, 6.20, 1.35 for slow, moderate, and fast, respectively), stroke frequency (effect sizes = 0.81, 1.12, 1.54, respectively), and blood lactate concentration (effect sizes = 0.99, 2.56, 1.70, respectively).

High-level physical performance in rhythmic gymnastics is influenced by numerous skills and anthropometric factors. In order to understand if genetic predisposition could play a role to define the elite rhythmic gymnast phenotype, we analysed the frequency of common polymorphisms linked to genes correlated with body mass (ADRB2 and FTO), explosive strength (ACTN3 and ACE), and joint mobility (COL5A1), in 42 gymnasts involved in National and International events, and in 42 control girls. Our results demonstrated that high-level rhythmic gymnasts constituted a genetically selected population showing higher frequency of: (a) ADRB2 and FTO alleles linked to low body mass index and low fat mass; (b) COL5A1 CT genotype linked to high joint mobility and to the occurrence of genu recurvatum, but also to a higher incidence of injuries. ACTN3 and ACE polymorphisms did not appear to be connected with the phenotype of high-level rhythmic gymnast. Based on these data, it can be assumed that these polymorphisms could positively affect the phenotype and performance of gymnasts.

In breaststroke, at each arm action corresponds one leg kick; therefore, compared to the other strokes (front crawl, backstroke and butterfly), the contribution of the lower limbs is more important. However, it can be observed that the same distance can be covered at similar velocities with different stroke length (SL) and, as a consequence, stroke rate (SR). Hence, it seems that breaststroke swimmers can use different styles to achieve their goals. Therefore, the assessment of upper and lower limbs strength becomes very important along with the style being used during breaststroke performance. Twenty-four male and twenty female national-level breaststroke swimmers were divided in two groups for each gender, according to their SR (low-SR and high-SR). They performed 100 m breaststroke all-out performance in a 50 m swimming pool. SR, SL and velocity (v) were measured. To assess upper and lower limbs strength, swimmers underwent dry-land chin-up and jump & reach tests. Dry-land tests did not correlate to v (p > 0.05). SL inversely correlated to chin-up and directly correlated to jump & reach (p < 0.01). Regardless to the gender, low-SR had lower chin-up results than high-SR (males 0.19 ± 0.03 vs. 0.24 ± 0.04 nr kg-1, p < 0.01; females 0.13 ± 0.02 vs. 0.15 ± 0.03 nr kg-1, p < 0.05) and jumped higher than high-SR (males 31.74 ± 0.50 vs. 25.11 ± 0.55 % height, p < 0.001; females 22.93 ± 0.33 vs. 20.54 ± 0.63 % height, p < 0.01) swimmers. Despite many factors are involved in determining swimming performance, upper and lower limbs strength seems to be linked to a different breaststroke style in our group of swimmers. © 2013 Springer-Verlag Italia.

In front crawl, stroke length (SL) and stroke rate (SR) are two important technical determinants of performance. The relationship between these parameters has been investigated by several authors and two propulsion efficiency indices have been proposed to assess improvements of the front crawl stroke effectiveness in swimmers. The stroke index (SI), proposed by Costill in 1985, relates the velocity (v) and the SL as shown in the following equation: SI=SL v; while the propelling efficiency of the arm stroke, proposed by Zamparo et al. in 2005, relates v, SR and the shoulder-to-hand distance of the arm (l) following the equation: ηp=((0.9 v)/2π SF l) 2/π. The aim of this study was to assess whether the two indices were correlated in two groups (M, males; F, females) of young expert front crawl swimmers, in order to utilise both of them as interchangeable tools when evaluating improvements in propulsion efficacy. The participants performed a 400-m trial, and analyses were carried out for the overall performance as well as for each 100-m section of the 400 m (S1, S2, S3, S4), underlining also a possible gender difference. All the correlations found were significant (p

Intense sports practice has effects on normal locomotion which may predispose athletes to certain injuries. The aim of the study was to evaluate weather playing rugby can change the distribution of forces on the surface of the foot plantar region and if these possible changes are caused by the high loading and the postural stances that this sport involves. The evaluation was performed using a baropodometer in static and dynamic conditions. We studied a group of 23 professional rugby players (scrums and three-quarters) who regularly trained 4-times per week. A control group consisted of 17 non-athletic healthy subjects. Baropodometric analysis revealed significantly higher rear-foot surface area and pressure for both feet in static conditions in rugby players compared to controls. In dynamic conditions, rugby players exerted a significantly higher ground pressure with respect to controls. Within the group of rugby players, scrums had significantly higher pressure than three-quarters, as well as a pressure increase in the lateral foot area. We conclude that rugby players tend to adopt an unbalanced posture posteriorly. The higher ground pressure together with the prevalent load on the lateral foot area may be associated with a difficult control of foot stability, possibly due to the higher body weight and to the increased tone and trophism of the triceps surae subsequent to the various athletic gestures that the game demands. In agreement with the literature, the variations of foot support observed in rugby players may be associated with adaptations induced by this sport, thus favoring an increased risk of bone, joint and muscle traumas and pathologies.

Injury in the lower limbs is extremely frequent in most sport activities, particularly when prolonged running and physical contact are prominent features. A major challenge is the differential diagnosis between muscle, joint and nerve lesions, although it should always be considered that combined lesions are quite frequent. In this part of the review, the most frequent nerve entrapment and traumatic lesions involving the peripheral nerves in the lower limb are discussed.

Sport–related strenuous physical activity and trauma are among the causes of peripheral nerves injuries, due in most cases to direct blow, compression or repeated traction or friction. Although in most cases the diagnosis is obvious, subtle peripheral nerve injuries can be difficult to recognize and, in most cases, require the support of appropriate instrumental evaluations. This review is divided into two parts devoted to the most common upper and lower limb peripheral nerves injuries, the anatomical reasons, the clinical presentation and the most helpful diagnostic tools.

A landmark-based statistical method, morphological variation analysis, for the quantification of the repeatability in the arrangement of body segments during the execution of sport actions has recently been developed. A two-dimensional shape is produced and its morphology is studied. The method was used to measure the within-team variability of the relative positions of players during the execution of offensive schemes in soccer. Two junior soccer teams of different technical abilities (semi-professional vs. amateur), each playing two standardized offensive schemes of different difficulty (easier: throw-in; more difficult: wing attack) were filmed. Each scheme was repeated 25 (semi-professionals) or 10 (amateurs) times. For each repetition, the position of the players in a single significant frame was analysed using morphological variation analysis. The reproducibility of both schemes was higher among the semi-professionals than among the amateurs (two-way analysis of variance, P0.005). The repeatability of the players' relative positions was related to the difficulty of the scheme and the technical level of the team. Among the amateurs, the throw-in was more reproducible than the wing attack (Student's t-test, P0.005). The method not only allows the quantification of collective (team) coordination, but also the separation of the influence of individual players.

Exercise performed at a competitive level could deeply modify the immune system and the cytokine response of athletes. In this report, we demonstrated that young elite female artistic gymnasts (n = 16; age: 9-15 years) showed an increase of interleukin 6 (IL-6) and tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) mRNA expression in blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), in comparison to girls performing the same sport at a recreational level (n = 16; age: 10-15 years). The increase of IL-6 and TNF-α mRNAs appeared to be directly linked to the intensity and duration of the training. Moreover, in elite athletes engaged in artistic gymnastics or in synchronised swimming (n =34; age: 9-15 years), IL-6 gene expression appeared to be modulated by the levels of circulating oestrogens: pre-pubertal athletes (n = 20; age: 11 ± 1 years) revealed a higher increase in IL-6 than pubertal athletes (n = 14; age: 14 ± 1.6 years). In pre-pubertal athletes, body mass index (BMI) percentile was inversely correlated with the increase of both IL-6 and TNF-α. The consequence of these events was the shift of the cytokine profile towards a pro-inflammatory status. These modifications, induced by training performed at an elite level, might negatively affect the growth of female children athletes.

In this study, the neck and head relative to the ground were more flexed, while the head relative to the neck was more extended, in the subjects who were blind than in the sighted subjects. The introduction of external (sound) or proprioceptive (mandibular position, look ahead) inputs modified craniocervical posture and relationships (extension) in both groups.

The size and shape of paired structures differ in the left and right sides of the body. Shape characteristics should be analyzed separately from size to supply information about the normal variations of human organs. In the present study, the within-subject normal symmetry of footprint shape and size was analyzed from a mathematical standpoint. On the standardized left and right footprints of 46 healthy adults (23 women and 23 men; 19-26 years old), the outline of each foot excluding the toes was identified and its shape was quantified independently from size by the elliptic Fourier analysis. The symmetry in shape was quantified on an intra-subject basis by calculating a morphologic distance D between the mathematical reconstructions of the left and right footprints of each subject. Symmetry in size was assessed by the right-to-left area ratio and found to be very good for all subjects; it ranged from 0.948 to 1.049. The subjects were also grouped by sex, and mean values were calculated. Within-subject symmetry in the footprint shape appeared high, with morphologic distances ranging between 8.94 and 2.66 in men and between 7.15 and 3.09 in women. No consistent associations between footprint symmetry and age, body height and weight, or shoe size were found. On average, women had more symmetric size-standardized footprints than did men (women: mean 4.57, SD 1.14; men: mean 5.46, SD 1.7; p < 0.05). Mean size-independent shapes of male and female left and right footprints were also calculated. Together with the analysis of individual asymmetry, they could be used for the quantitative diagnosis of borderline patients.

A new television technique that proved to be faster than conventional photographic analysis has been developed and applied to the evaluation of the head and body natural standing posture in 303 healthy children, ages 6 to 11, and in 186 healthy young adults. In the lateral plane all subjects had extended head (soft tissue Frankfurt plane), with parallel Camper's and occlusal planes. The neck was halfway between the horizontal and vertical planes. Most angles significantly correlated with each other. The occlusal and neck angles showed a significant effect of age, being larger in children than in adults. In children the neck was more flexed, and the occlusal plane was more inclined downward. The results were in accord with previous photographic evaluations showing that the applied method was reliable and could be usefully employed in postural investigations. The results also confirmed that in healthy subjects, regardless of age, the soft tissue Frankfurt plane is extended, not horizontal.