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Although neuraxial techniques such as caudal and epidural anesthesia were initially the predominant regional anesthetic technique used to provide postoperative analgesia in children, there has been a transition to the use of peripheral nerve blockade such as the quadratus lumborum block (QLB). We present preliminary experience with QL catheters for continuous postoperative analgesia in a cohort of pediatric patients following colorectal surgery.After institutional review board (IRB) approval, we retrospectively reviewed the records of patients who underwent major colorectal surgery and received QL catheters for postoperative analgesia. The postoperative pain control data consisted of QL catheter characteristics, anesthetic agents, adjuncts, pain scores, and opioid consumption during the postoperative period.The study cohort included eight pediatric patients, ranging in age from 1 to 19 years (median age 11.8 years). The QL catheters were placed in the operating room after the induction of anesthesia. Comorbid conditions in the cohort that were contraindications to neuraxial anesthesia included spinal/vertebral malformations, presence of a ventriculoperitoneal (VP) shunt, anal atresia, tracheo-esophageal fistula (VACTERL) association, and coagulation disturbances. All patients underwent complex colorectal or genito-urologic procedures. Bilateral QL catheters were placed in six patients, and unilateral catheters were placed in two patients. Four patients received 0.5% ropivacaine and four patients received 0.2% ropivacaine of an initial bolus. The local anesthetic used for continuous infusion was 0.2% ropivacaine in five patients, 0.1% ropivacaine in two patients, and 1.5% chloroprocaine in one patient, with a median infusion rate of 0.11 mL/kg/h. QL catheter infusions were supplemented with intravenous opioids delivered by patient-controlled or nurse-controlled analgesia. The median opioid requirements in oral morphine milligram equivalents (MME) were 1.2, 1.0, 1.1, 0.5, and 0.6 MME/kg on postoperative days 1 - 5. Daily median pain scores were ≤ 2 during the 5-day postoperative course. All catheters functioned successfully and were in place for a median of 79.3 h. Other than early inadvertent removal of two catheters, no adverse effects were noted.Although our preliminary data suggest the efficacy of QL catheters in providing prolonged postoperative analgesia for up to 3 - 5 days following colorectal procedures, attention needs to be directed at measures to ensure that the catheter is secured to avoid inadvertent removal.

Background : Epidural anesthesia in infants undergoing open abdominal surgery has the potential to reduce opioid consumption, lower pain scores, and expedite tracheal extubation. We evaluated associations between use of continuous epidural chloroprocaine and improved intra- and post-operative outcomes. Methods : This matched retrospective cohort study first identified 24 patients who between April 2018 through December 2019 were treated with a caudal catheter and epidural chloroprocaine infusion for a laparotomy at postnatal age of 6 months or less. A matched comparator group of 24 patients was derived based on age and type of surgery. Exclusion criteria were the presence of a preoperative opioid infusion, comorbidities that would preclude appropriate pain assessment, or a recent surgical procedure. Primary outcomes included opioid consumption and pain scores; we secondarily analyzed intraoperative anesthetic requirements, other systemic analgesic use, vital signs, tracheal extubation time, and procedural times. Results : Treatment with epidural anesthesia was associated with lower 5-day total postoperative opioid consumption (3.2 mg/kg vs. 19.7 mg/kg in the respective epidural vs. systemic groups, p = 0.001) and time to tracheal extubation (1.3 days vs. 3.2 days, p = 0.005). Any statistically significant differences in pain scores were not clinically meaningful. There were no differences in mean arterial pressure or intraoperative inhaled anesthetic doses. Conclusion : Continuous infusion of epidural chloroprocaine in infants following open abdominal surgery may limit exposure to systemic opioid medications while providing adequate postoperative analgesia and shortening time to tracheal extubation.

Joanne Du,1 Catherine Roth,2 Sujana Dontukurthy,3 Joseph D Tobias,2,4 Giorgio Veneziano2,4 1The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH, USA; 2Department of Anesthesiology & Pain Medicine, Nationwide Children’s Hospital, Columbus, OH, USA; 3Department of Anesthesiology, Valley Children’s Hospital, Madera, CA, USA; 4Department of Anesthesiology & Pain Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH, USACorrespondence: Giorgio Veneziano, Department of Anesthesiology & Pain Medicine, Nationwide Children’s Hospital, 700 Children’s Dr, Columbus, OH, 43205, USA, Tel + 1 614-722-4200, Email Giorgio.Veneziano@nationwidechildrens.orgPurpose: Awake spinal anesthesia continues as an alternative to general anesthesia for infants. Standard clinical practice includes the manual palpation of surface landmarks to identify the desired intervertebral space for lumbar puncture (LP). The current study investigates the accuracy of manual palpation for identifying the intended intervertebral site for LP, using ultrasonography for confirmation and to determine the interspace where the conus medullaris ends.Patients and Methods: After informed parental consent, patients less than one year of age undergoing spinal anesthesia for lower abdominal, urologic, or lower extremity surgical procedures were included. Patients were held in the seated position and an attending pediatric anesthesiologist or pediatric anesthesiology fellow declared the vertebral interspace intended for needle insertion, palpated surface landmarks, and placed a mark at the site. A research anesthesiologist then determined the actual vertebral interspace of the marked site and the location of the conus medullaris using ultrasonography. The time to complete both techniques (manual palpation and ultrasonography) was recorded.Results: The study cohort included 50 infants (median age of 7 months). Sixteen vertebral interspaces (32%) were inaccurately marked. One was marked two spaces higher than intended, ten were marked one space higher than intended, and five were marked one space lower than intended. In one patient, the intended vertebral interspace for the lumbar puncture overlaid the conus medullaris. The median time required was 25 seconds (IQR 14.3, 32) for palpation and 39 seconds (IQR 29, 63.8) for ultrasonography.Conclusion: Manual palpation of surface landmarks to determine the correct interspace for LP for spinal anesthesia in infants is inaccurate. The time required to perform spinal ultrasonography in infants for determination of the optimal site for LP is brief and may be useful in ensuring accurate identification of the correct interspace and the location of the conus medullaris.Keywords: spinal anesthesia, infant, ultrasonography, palpation, lumbar puncture, conus medullaris

Introduction For surgical procedures involving the hip and femur, various regional anesthetic techniques may be used to provide analgesia. Although there has been an increase in the use of lumbar plexus block (LPB), the technique may be time consuming and associated with complications. Suprainguinal fascia iliaca compartment block (FICB) is a potentially easier and safer alternative. The current study prospectively compares LPB with suprainguinal FICB. Methods This prospective, double-blinded, randomized, study included patients undergoing elective orthopedic procedures of the hip and/or femur. All study patients received general anesthesia with randomization to either an LPB or suprainguinal FICB using 0.5% ropivacaine with epinephrine and dexamethasone. Postoperative pain control was achieved with intravenous hydromorphone delivered by patient-controlled analgesia with scheduled acetaminophen and ketorolac. Outcome data included time to perform the block, perioperative opioid consumption, postoperative pain scores (VAS) and hospital length of stay. Results The study cohort included 15 patients between the ages of 7 and 16 years (LPB N = 7, FICB N = 8). The median block time was 6 minutes (IQR: 4.11) for the LPB group and 3 minutes (IQR: 3.6) for the FICB group (p = 0.107). Median postoperative pain scores were 4 (IQR: 0.6) for the LPB group and 2 (IQR: 0.5) for the FICB group (p = 0.032). There were no differences in the intraoperative or postoperative opioid and NSAID use between the two groups. Discussion The suprainguinal FICB provides analgesia that is at least as effective as a LPB following hip and femur surgery. Time to perform the block was shorter with the FICB due to the supine patient position and limited needle trajectory. Although we noted no adverse effects, the superficial needle trajectory of the FICB offers a less invasive approach and the potential for decreased risks of adverse effects.

Regional anaesthesia in children has evolved rapidly in the last decade. Although it previously consisted of primarily neuraxial techniques, the practice now incorporates advanced peripheral nerve blocks, which were only recently described in adults. These novel blocks provide new avenues for providing opioid-sparing analgesia while minimising invasiveness, and perhaps risk, associated with older techniques. At the same time, established methods, such as infant spinal anaesthesia, under-utilised in the last 20 years, are experiencing a revival. The impetus has been the concern regarding the potential long-term neurocognitive effects of general anaesthesia in the young child. These techniques have expanded from single shot spinal anaesthesia to combined spinal/epidural techniques, which can now effectively provide surgical anaesthesia for procedures below the umbilicus for a prolonged period of time, thereby avoiding the need for general anaesthesia. Continuous 2-chloroprocaine infusions, previously only described for intra-operative regional anaesthesia, have gained popularity as a means of providing prolonged postoperative analgesia in epidural and continuous nerve block techniques. The rapid, liver-independent metabolism of 2-chloroprocaine makes it ideal for prolonged local anaesthetic infusions in neonates and small infants, obviating the increased risk of local anaesthetic systemic toxicity that occurs with amide local anaesthetics. Debate continues over certain practices in paediatric regional anaesthesia. While the rarity of complications makes comparative analyses difficult, data from large prospective registries indicate that providing regional anaesthesia to children while under general anaesthesia appears to be at least as safe as in the sedated or awake patient. In addition, the estimated frequency of serious adverse events demonstrates that regional blocks in children under general anaesthesia are no less safe than in awake adults. In infants, the techniques of direct thoracic epidural placement or caudal placement with cephalad threading each have distinct advantages and disadvantages. As the data cannot support the safety of one technique over the other, the site of epidural insertion remains largely a matter of anaesthetist discretion.

Introduction In neonates and infants, epidural analgesia has gained popularity as a means of providing postoperative analgesia, limiting opioid-related adverse effects and improving the postoperative course. In addition to a local anesthetic agent, adjunctive agents may be added to further augment analgesia. Clonidine is an α2-adrenergic agonist that is frequently added to single-shot caudal analgesia, but there are limited data regarding its use in a continuous epidural infusion, especially in patients ≤12 months of age. Methods We retrospectively reviewed the hospital records of neonates and infants who received postoperative epidural infusions with 2-chloroprocaine, and clonidine was identified over a 4-year period. Results The study cohort included 52 neonates and infants ranging in age from 0 to 12 months and in weight from 2.1 to 10.1 kilograms. The catheters were dosed with either 1.5% 2-chloroprocaine (n=47) or 3% 2-chloroprocaine (n=5) with clonidine (median concentration 0.2 µg/mL) infused at a median rate of 0.72 mL/kg/hour. Pain scores were uniformly ≤3 at all evaluation points during the first 72 postoperative hours with a limited need for supplemental systemic opioids. No serious adverse effects were noted. Conclusion With the recognized limitations of a retrospective study, these preliminary data demonstrate the safety of adding clonidine to an epidural infusion of 2-chloroprocaine in neonates and infants less than 12 months of age. Future studies are needed to determine its analgesic efficacy compared to 2-chloroprocaine alone and the optimal clonidine concentration for postoperative epidural infusions.

Introduction The use of regional anesthesia techniques continues to expand in a wide variety of surgical procedures as the benefits and safety are increasingly appreciated. Limb-lengthening procedures are often associated with significant postoperative pain and high opioid requirements which may impact patient’s recovery and increase risk of chronic pain and long-term opioid use. Methods The current study retrospectively reviews our experience utilizing a novel peripheral nerve catheter (PNC) protocol for postoperative pain management in patients undergoing elective limb-lengthening procedures. We measure total opioid consumption following 48 hrs in the postoperative period between groups. Results A total of 70 patients were included from which 41 received general plus regional anesthesia (RA) and 29 were managed with general anesthesia alone (NORA). Postoperative pain needs were calculated as morphine equivalents (ME). There were no differences in the demographic characteristics between the groups. Over the first 48 postoperative hours, opioid use was 0.5 mg/kg ME (IQR 0.3, 0.9) in the RA group versus 1.7 mg/kg ME (IQR 1.1, 3.1) in the NORA group (p

Introduction: Selective dorsal rhizotomy (SDR) provides lasting relief of spasticity for children suffering from cerebral palsy, although controlling postoperative pain is challenging. Postoperatively, escalation of therapies to include a patient-controlled analgesia (PCA) pump and intensive care unit (ICU) admission is common. Objectives: We developed a multimodal pain management protocol that included intraoperative placement of an epidural catheter with continuous opioid administration. We present the 3-year results of protocol implementation. Methods: With institutional review board approval, all patients who were subjected to SDR at our institution were identified for review. Hourly pain scores were recorded. Adverse effects of medication, including desaturation, nausea/vomiting, and pruritus, were also noted. Comparisons were made between patients treated with PCA and those treated with multimodal pain control using t and χ2 tests as appropriate. Results: Thirty-nine patients undergoing the procedure with protocolized pain control (average age 6.8 years, 57% male) were compared to 7 PCA-treated controls (average age 6.6 years, 54% male). Pain control was satisfactory in both groups, with average pain scores of 1.5 in both groups on postoperative day 0, decreasing by postoperative day 3 to 1.1 in the PCA group and 0.5 in the protocol group. No patients under the protocol required ICU admission; all patients with PCA spent at least 1 day in the ICU. Desaturations were seen in 16 patients in the protocol group (41%), but none required ICU transfer. Treatment for pruritis was given to 57% of PCA patients and 15% of protocol patients. Treatment for nausea and vomiting was given to 100% of PCA patients and 51% of protocol patients. Medication requirements for the hospitalization were decreased from 1.1 to 0.28 doses per patient for pruritis, and from 3 to 1.1 doses per patient for nausea. Conclusions: Multimodal analgesia is an excellent alternative to PCA for postoperative pain after SDR. Actual analgesia is comparative to that of controls without the need for intensive care monitoring. Side effects of high-dose opiates were less frequent and required less medication. With the protocol, patients were safely treated outside the ICU.

Background: Several studies have attempted to estimate the approximate distance from the skin-to-epidural space using different imaging modalities (computed tomography [CT], ultrasound, and magnetic resonance imaging [MRI]) and direct needle measurements. The objective of our study was to compare the distance from the skin to the epidural space (SED) at multiple levels, focusing on T6-7, T9-10, and L2-3 using MRI. Methods: After institutional review board (IRB) approval, sagittal T2-weighted MRI images of the spine of 108 children in the age group ranging from 3 months to 8 years undergoing radiological evaluation in the supine position at our institution were analyzed. The SED at T6-7 and T9-10 levels (straight and inclined) and SED at L2-3 (straight) were determined and compared using repeated-measures ANOVA and paired t-tests with a Bonferroni correction for 10 pairwise comparisons (P < 0.005 was considered statistically significant). Results: The average SED (measured straight and inclined) was 18.2 mm and 21.6 mm at T6-7; 18.3 mm and 20.5 mm at T9-10; and 21.8 mm (straight) at L2-3. The repeated-measures ANOVA F-test indicated significant variability in SED (P < 0.001) among the 5 measurements obtained. At the P < 0.005 significance level, corrected for multiple comparisons, the SED (straight) at T9-10 straight was shorter than the other measured distances. Conclusion: The distance from the skin to the epidural space is not constant at various vertebral levels. At the levels measured, it was greatest at the lumbar level and at least at the thoracic level of T9-10. A single predictive formula was not applicable for calculating the approximate SED at all vertebral levels.

Evaluation of postoperative analgesia in pediatric patients after hip surgery: lumbar plexus versus caudal epidural analgesia Mauricio Arce Villalobos,1 Giorgio Veneziano,1,2 Rebecca Miller,1 Ralph J Beltran,1,2 Senthil Krishna,1,2 Dmitry Tumin,1,3 Kevin Klingele,1,2 Joseph D Tobias1–31Department of Anesthesiology & Pain Medicine, Nationwide Children’s Hospital, Columbus, OH, USA; 2Department of Anesthesiology & Pain Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH, USA; 3Department of Pediatrics, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH, USABackground:There continues to be focus on the value of regional and neuraxial anesthetic techniques when combined with general anesthesia to improve postoperative analgesia. The reported advantages include decreased postoperative opioid requirements, decreased medication-related adverse effects, decreased hospital length of stay, and increased patient satisfaction. Orthopedic procedures of the hip may be amenable to such techniques as there is significant postoperative pain with the requirement for hospital admission and the administration of parenteral opioids. Given the surgical site, various regional anesthetic techniques may be used to provide analgesia including caudal epidural anesthesia (CEA) or lumbar plexus blockade (LPB).Purpose: The objective of this study was to assess the effectiveness of LPB versus CEA as an analgesic thechnique for patients undergoing elective hip surgery from the opioid consumption and pain scores perspective.Patients and methods: The current study retrospectively reviews our experience with CEA and LPB for postoperative analgesia after hip surgery in the pediatric population. Regional anesthesia technique was reviewed as well as opioid requirements and pain scores.Results: The study cohort included 61 patients, 29 who received an LPB and 32 who received CEA. No difference was noted in the demographics between the two groups. Intraoperative opioid use was 0.7 (IQR: 0.5, 1.1) mg/kg of oral morphine equivalents (MEs) in the LPB group compared to 0.6 (IQR: 0.5, 0.9) in the CEA group (p=0.479). Postoperative opioid use over the first 48 hrs was 4 (IQR: 1, 6) mg/kg of oral ME in the LPB group, compared to 2 (interquartile range [IQR]: 1, 3) in the CEA group (p=0.103). Over the first 24 hrs after surgery, the median pain score in the LPB group was 5 (IQR: 1–6), compared to 3 (IQR: 0, 5) in the CEA group (p=0.014).Conclusion: These retrospective data suggest a modest postoperative benefit of CEA when compared to LPB following hip surgery in the pediatric population. Postoperative pain scores were lower in patients receiving CEA; however, no difference in the intraoperative or postoperative opioid requirements was noted between the two groups.Keywords: lumbar plexus block, caudal epidural anesthesia

To review experience with outpatient spinal anesthesia (SA) from a single center in infants ≤6 months of age.Retrospective review of all SAs performed in the ambulatory setting in the outpatient surgery centers in infants ≤6 months of age from 2016 to 2020, focusing on success rate, adverse events, post-anesthesia care unit (PACU) times, and emergency department (ED) or urgent care (UC) returns within 7 days of the operation.The study cohort included 175 SAs performed on 173 patients ≤6 months of age. One hundred and sixty-two patients (93%) were able to undergo their respective surgical procedures under SA without conversion to general anesthesia. One hundred and thirty-six patients (78%) did not require additional sedation or analgesic agents. The median time from entering the operating room until the start of surgical procedure was 17 min. One hundred and twenty-six patients (72%) were able to bypass Phase I of the PACU. One hundred and forty-seven patients (86%) were discharged in less than two hours postoperatively. Only one complication related to SA was noted. This was a patient who returned on postoperative day 2 with a possible CSF leak noted by ultrasound. After overnight hospital floor admission, he was discharged the next day after receiving intravenous fluids without further sequelae.SA is a viable option for anesthetic care in infants ≤6 months of age presenting for outpatient surgery. Advantages included the ability to bypass PACU Phase I and facilitation of hospital discharge.IV. Retrospective cohort treatment study.

OBJECTIVES:We pursued the use of regional analgesia (RA) to minimize the use of postoperative opioids. Our aim was to increase the use of postoperative RA for eligible surgical procedures in the NICU from 0% to 80% by June 30, 2019.METHODS:A multidisciplinary team determined the eligibility criteria, developed an extensive process map, implemented comprehensive education, and a structured process for communication of postoperative pain management plans. Daily pain team rounds provided an opportunity for collaborative comanagement. An additional 30 minutes for catheter placement was added in operating room (OR) scheduling so that it would not affect the surgeon OR time.RESULTS:There were 21 eligible surgeries in the baseline period and 34 in the intervention period. In total, 30 of 34 infants in eligible surgeries (88%) received RA. The average total opioid exposure in intravenous morphine milligram equivalents decreased from 5.0 to 1.1 mg/kg in the intervention group. The average time to extubation was 45 hours in the baseline period and 19.9 hours in the intervention group. After interventions, 75% of infants were extubated in the OR, as compared with 10.5% in the baseline period. No difference was seen in postoperative pain scores or postoperative hypothermia between the baseline and intervention groups.CONCLUSIONS:We used quality improvement methodology to develop a structured RA program. We demonstrated a significant reduction in opioid requirements and need for mechanical ventilation postoperatively for those infants who received RA. Our findings support safe and effective use of RA, and provide a framework for implementation of a similar program.

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), first described in 1834, is an X-linked dystrophinopathy, leading to early onset skeletal muscle weakness. Life expectancy is reduced to early adulthood as a result of involvement of voluntary skeletal muscles with respiratory failure, orthopedic deformities, and associated cardiomyopathy. Given its multisystem involvement, surgical intervention may be required to address the sequelae of the disease process. We present a 36-year-old adult with DMD, who required anesthetic care during surgical debridement of an ischial pressure sore. Given his significant respiratory muscle involvement, ultrasound-guided caudal epidural anesthesia was used instead of general during the surgical procedure. The technique and its applications are discussed, with particular emphasis on the feasibility and safety of using regional anesthetic techniques in patients with DMD.

Senthil G Krishna,1,2 Faizaan Syed,1 Mohammed Hakim,1 Mumin Hakim,3 Dmitry Tumin,1 Giorgio C Veneziano,1,2 Joseph D Tobias1,2 1Department of Anesthesiology & Pain Medicine, Nationwide Children’s Hospital, Columbus, OH, USA; 2Department of Anesthesiology & Pain Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH, USA; 3Department of Surgery, Montefiore Medical Centre, Bronx, NY, USA Background: When managing patients with a difficult airway, supraglottic airways (SGAs) have been used as rescue devices or to serve as a conduit for endotracheal intubation. The current study compares various clinical outcomes, including the bronchoscopic view of the glottis when using 2 SGAs, the Air-Q® laryngeal mask airway (LMA) and the i-gel® SGA, in pediatric patients. Methods: Patients ≤18 years of age were prospectively randomized to receive either the Air-Q® LMA or the i-gel® SGA. Following SGA placement, a flexible fiberoptic bronchoscope was inserted through the SGA to visualize the glottis. Time taken to obtain the bronchoscopic view and place the SGA, and the ability to seal the airway at 20 cmH2O were compared. The bronchoscopic view obtained was graded as follows: 1) glottic aperture seen completely; 2) glottic aperture seen partially with visual obstruction 50%; and 4) glottic aperture not seen. Results: Fifty patients were enrolled and 48 (22/26 male/female) were included in the analysis. Median age was 13 years (IQR: 7, 16) and median weight was 49 kg (IQR: 25, 70). The Air-Q® LMA and i-gel® SGA groups did not differ in device placement time (median of 19 vs 21 seconds; 95% CI of difference in medians: − 2 to 7; P=0.331), the time to achieve fiberoptic view of the glottis (median of 25 vs 21 seconds; 95% CI of difference: − 9 to 8; P=0.489) or the grade of the bronchoscopic view of the airway. Eight Air-Q® and 6 i-gel® supraglottic devices sealed the airway at 20 cmH2O. Discussion: The time required for successful placement of the SGA, the time required for bronchoscopic view, and the quality of bronchoscopic view through the Air-Q® LMA and the i-gel® SGA did not differ. Keywords: supraglottic airways, bronchoscopic view, glottic aperture

To provide optimal conditions for neurophysiological monitoring and rapid awakening, remifentanil is commonly used during pediatric spinal surgery. However, remifentanil may induce hyperalgesia and increase postoperative opioid requirements. We evaluated the potential of methadone or magnesium to prevent remifentanil-induced hyperalgesia. Using a prospective, randomized, blinded design, adolescents presenting for posterior spinal fusion to treat idiopathic scoliosis were assigned to receive desflurane with remifentanil alone (REMI), remifentanil + methadone (MET) (0.1 mg/kg IV over 15 min), or remifentanil + magnesium (MAG) (50 mg/kg bolus over 30 min followed by 10 mg/kg/h). Primary outcomes were opioid requirements and postoperative pain scores. Secondary outcomes included intraoperative anesthetic requirements, neurophysiological monitoring conditions, and emergence times. Data analysis included 60 patients. Total opioid requirement (hydromorphone) in the REMI group (received perioperatively and on the inpatient ward) was 0.34 ± 0.11 mg/kg compared to 0.26 ± 0.10 mg/kg in the MET group (95% confidence interval (CI) of difference: − 0.14, − 0.01; p = 0.035). The difference in opioid requirements between the REMI and MET group was related to intraoperative dosing (0.04 ± 0.02 mg/kg vs. 0.02 ± 0.01 mg/kg; 95% CI of difference: − 0.01, − 0.02; p = 0.003). No difference was noted in pain scores, and no differences were noted when comparing the REMI and MAG groups. With the dosing regimens in the current study, the only benefit noted with methadone was a decrease in perioperative opioid requirements. However, given the potential for hyperalgesia with the intraoperative use of remifentanil, adjunctive use of methadone appears warranted.

MohammedHakim,1 Alexander B Froyshteter,2 Hina Walia,1 Dmitry Tumin,1,3 Giorgio Veneziano,1 Tarun Bhalla,1,4 Joseph D Tobias1,3,4 1Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Nationwide Children’s Hospital, Columbus, OH, USA; 2Department of Anesthesiology, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, USA; 3Department of Pediatrics, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH, USA; 4Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH, USA Introduction: Epidural anesthesia is frequently used to provide postoperative analgesia following major surgical procedures. Secure fixation of the epidural catheter is necessary to prevent premature dislodgment and loss of epidural analgesia. Using an in vitro model, the current prospective study evaluates different types of dressings for securement of an epidural catheter by quantifying the force in Newtons (N) required for dislodgment using a digital force gage. Methods: Four methods of epidural catheter securement were used on a simulator mannequin: 1) Suresite® Window Clear Dressing, 2) Op-Site Post-Op® Visible Dressing, 3) Steri-Strips® and Suresite Window Clear Dressing, and 4) Steri-Strips and Op-Site Post-Op Visible Dressing. Each method of securement was assessed 10 times to calculate the mean force required to dislodge the catheter. Mean force of dislodgment for each method was compared using parametric tests. Results: The force (mean ± SD) required for catheter dislodgment for the four methods was 14.0±2.9, 2, 10.7±1.5, 8.6±2.3, and 9.6±2.2 N, respectively. The pairwise difference showed that the Suresite Window Clear Dressing was the best securement method when compared with other methods. Conclusion: Our study demonstrates the advantage of the Suresite Window Clear Dressing in securing the epidural catheter. Future clinical trials are needed to validate these findings. Keywords: epidural catheter, securement, dressings

Nicole M Elsey,1 Joseph D Tobias,1–3 Kevin E Klingele,4 Ralph J Beltran,1,2 Tarun Bhalla,1,2 David Martin,1,2 Giorgio Veneziano,1,2 Julie Rice,1,2 Dmitry Tumin1,2 1Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Nationwide Children’s Hospital, 2The Ohio State University, 3Department of Pediatrics, Nationwide Children’s Hospital and The Ohio State University College of Medicine, 4Department of Orthopedic Surgery and Sports Medicine, Nationwide Children’s Hospital and The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA Background: Traumatic injury of the femur resulting in femoral fracture may result in significant postoperative pain. As with other causes of acute pain, regional anesthesia may offer a benefit over conventional therapy with intravenous opioids. This study prospectively assesses the effects of femoral nerve blockade with a lateral femoral cutaneous nerve block (FN-LFCN) on intraoperative anesthetic requirements, postoperative pain scores, and opioid requirements.Materials and methods: Seventeen pediatric patients (age 2–18 years) undergoing surgical repair of a traumatic femur fracture fulfilled the study criteria and were randomly assigned to general anesthesia with either an FN-LFCN block (n = 10) or intravenous opioids (n = 7). All patients received a general anesthetic with isoflurane for maintenance anesthesia during the surgical repair of the femur fracture. Patients randomized to the FN-LFCN block group received ultrasound-guided nerve blockade using ropivacaine (0.2%/0.5% based on patient weight). At the conclusion of surgery, the airway device was removed once tracheal extubation criteria were achieved, and patients were transported to the post-anesthesia care unit (PACU) for recovery and assessment of pain by a blinded study nurse.Results: The final study cohort included 17 patients (n = 10 for FN-LFCN block group; n=7 for the intravenous opioid group). Although the median of the maximum postoperative pain scores in the regional group was 0, this did not reach statistical significance when compared to the median pain score of 3 in the intravenous opioid group. Likewise, no difference between the two groups was noted when comparing intraoperative anesthetic requirements, opioid requirements (intraoperative, in the post-anesthesia recovery room, and in the inpatient ward), and the time to first opioid requirement postoperatively in the inpatient ward.Conclusion: This prospective, randomized, double-blinded study failed to demonstrate a clear benefit of regional anesthesia over intravenous opioids intraoperatively and postoperatively during repair of femoral shaft fractures in the pediatric population. Keywords: pediatric, femur fracture repair, femoral nerve block&nbsp

Continuous epidural infusions are an effective and safe method of providing anesthesia and postoperative analgesia in infants and children with multiple advantages over systemic medications, including earlier tracheal extubation, decreased perioperative stress response, earlier return of bowel function, and decreased exposure to volatile anesthetic agents with uncertain long-term neurocognitive effects. Despite these benefits, local anesthetic toxicity remains a concern in neonates and infants because of their decreased metabolic capacity for amide local anesthetics. Chloroprocaine, an ester local anesthetic agent, which is rapidly metabolized in plasma at all ages, is an attractive alternative for this special population, particularly in the presence of superimposed liver impairment or when higher infusion rates are needed for surgical incisions stretching many dermatomes. The current manuscript reviews the literature pertaining to the use of 2-chloroprocaine for regional anesthesia in infants and children. Dosing regimens are presented and the applications of 2-chloroprocaine in this population are discussed.

Introduction: Acute appendicitis is the most common gastrointestinal condition requiring urgent operation in the pediatric population with laparoscopic appendectomy (LA) being the current surgical technique. We describe the implementation of a standardized protocol to reduce postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV) and facilitate same-day discharge after LA. Methods: A multidisciplinary team developed this protocol to facilitate same-day discharge after observing high rates of overnight stay due to PONV among simple appendectomies performed in 2011–2012. The protocol was implemented in November 2014 and underwent a revision in June 2016. Following the implementation of the protocol, we monitored the patients undergoing an LA at Nationwide Children’s Hospital between November 2014 and August 2017. Results: We identified 691 patients (255 female) who underwent a simple LA at Nationwide Children’s Hospital between November 2014 and August 2017. The patient population had a median age of 11 years (interquartile range: 9, 14). Among these patients, 514 (74%) were discharged on the day of surgery, and 387 (56%) were protocol compliant. The rate of same-day discharge was higher for compliant cases (79%) than noncompliant cases (69%, P = 0.003). Multivariable statistical analysis associated compliance with an increased likelihood of same-day discharge (Odds ratio [OR] = 1.7, 95% CI: 1.2, 2.4, P = 0.002). Conclusions: Implementation of the LA protocol to reduce PONV demonstrated a significant increase in the rate of same-day discharge from the hospital among compliant patients. Also, the adoption of a protocol to select patients for early discharge after LA has shown results with a 45% reduction in the need for inhospital beds.

Background: Previous studies regarding same-day discharge (SDD) after laparoscopic appendectomy for pediatric patients have been limited by the cohort size and lack of specificity regardin...

Introduction: Although the Nuss procedure provides excellent cosmetic results for the correction of pectus excavatum, the provision of analgesia following such procedures can be challenging. Methods: The current study retrospectively reviews our experience over a 2.5 year period with thoracic epidural analgesia (TE), paravertebral blockade (PVB), and intravenous opioids delivered via patient-controlled analgesia (PCA) to provide postoperative analgesia. Results: The study cohort included 30 patients (mean age = 15.6 ± 1.5 years), 15 of whom were treated with PCA, 8 with TE, and 7 with PVB. There were no significant differences in pain scores between the 3 groups at any time point during the first 3 postoperative days. Compared to PCA, the PVB group had lower opioid consumption over the first 24 hours of hospitalization by 1.7 mg/kg morphine equivalents (95% CI of difference: 0.1, 3.3; p=0.035); but had higher opioid consumption by 2.0 mg/kg morphine equivalents than the TE group (95% CI of difference: 0.3, 3.7; p=0.024). There were no differences in opioid consumption between PVB and PCA or between PVB and TE at 48 or 72 hours. The number of intraoperative hypotension episodes was significantly lower in the PCA group when compared to the PVB group (p=0.001), with no difference between the PVB and TE groups. Conclusions: The use of regional anesthesia should be considered a viable option for the relief of postoperative pain in pediatric patients following the Nuss procedure albeit with a higher incidence of intraoperative hemodynamic effects. A randomized, prospective, study powered to compare all 3 techniques against one another would be necessary to confirm the significance of these findings.

Giorgio Veneziano,1,2 Jennifer Tripi,1 Dmitry Tumin,1 Mumin Hakim,1 David Martin,1,2 Ralph Beltran,1,2 Kevin Klingele,3,4 Tarun Bhalla,1,2 Joseph D Tobias1,2 1Department of Anesthesiology& Pain Medicine, Nationwide Children’s Hospital, 2Department of Anesthesiology & Pain Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, 3Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Nationwide Children’s Hospital, 4Department of Orthopedic Surgery, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH,USA Background: Femoral nerve blockade (FNB) provides effective postoperative analgesia in children undergoing arthroscopic knee surgery as evidenced by their opioid-sparing effects and decreased postoperative pain scores. Increasing the local anesthetic concentration in peripheral nerve blockade for adults undergoing orthopedic surgery has been shown to be beneficial, increasing block success rate, and providing a longer duration of analgesia. The effect of increasing the concentration of local anesthetic in extremity blocks in children remains largely unexplored.Methods: We retrospectively evaluated the effectiveness of FNB using three concentrations of local anesthetic (ropivacaine 0.2%, bupivacaine 0.25%, and ropivacaine 0.5%) in children and adolescents undergoing arthroscopic knee surgery. The primary outcome evaluated was postoperative opioid consumption before discharge. Secondary outcomes included post-anesthesia care unit (PACU) and hospital discharge times, first pain score in PACU, and the incidence of adverse events.Results: Two hundred and sixty-nine children and adolescents who received a FNB for arthroscopic knee surgery from January 2010 to December 2013 were included for analysis. Local anesthetic used in FNB was ropivacaine 0.2% in 116 (43%) cases, ropivacaine 0.5% in 75 (28%) cases, and bupivacaine 0.25% in 78 (29%) cases. Median postoperative opioid consumption (mg/kg intravenous morphine equivalents) in the ropivacaine 0.5% group was 0mg/kg (interquartile ranges [IQR]: 0 mg, 0.03 mg/kg) compared to 0.02 mg/kg (IQR: 0, 0.08 mg/kg) in the ropivacaine 0.2% group and 0.01 mg/kg (IQR: 0, 0.08 mg/kg) in the bupivacaine 0.25% group (p=0.009). Median PACU time was shortest in the ropivacaine 0.5% group (47min; IQR: 36, 68 min) compared to the ropivacaine 0.2% (58 min; IQR: 41, 77) and bupivacaine 0.25% (54 min; IQR: 35, 75 min) groups (p=0.040). Among groups, there were no significant differences in first postoperative pain scores or incidence of nausea and vomiting. No patient in any group experienced a serious adverse event.Conclusion: The results suggest that ropivacaine 0.5% for FNB offers superior postoperative analgesia in the form of decreased postoperative opioid consumption and earlier PACU/hospital discharge, when compared to ropivacaine 0.2% and bupivacaine 0.25% in the pediatric population.Level of evidence: III, Retrospective Comparative Study. Keywords: anesthesia, regional, nerve block, pain, postoperative, local anesthetic, child, adolescent

Background:There continues to be focus on the value of regional and neuraxial anesthetic techniques when combined with general anesthesia to improve postoperative analgesia. The reported advantages include decreased postoperative opioid requirements, decreased medication-related adverse effects, decreased hospital length of stay, and increased patient satisfaction. Orthopedic procedures of the hip may be amenable to such techniques as there is significant postoperative pain with the requirement for hospital admission and the administration of parenteral opioids. Given the surgical site, various regional anesthetic techniques may be used to provide analgesia including caudal epidural anesthesia (CEA) or lumbar plexus blockade (LPB). Purpose: The objective of this study was to assess the effectiveness of LPB versus CEA as an analgesic thechnique for patients undergoing elective hip surgery from the opioid consumption and pain scores perspective. Patients and methods: The current study retrospectively reviews our experience with CEA and LPB for postoperative analgesia after hip surgery in the pediatric population. Regional anesthesia technique was reviewed as well as opioid requirements and pain scores. Results: The study cohort included 61 patients, 29 who received an LPB and 32 who received CEA. No difference was noted in the demographics between the two groups. Intraoperative opioid use was 0.7 (IQR: 0.5, 1.1) mg/kg of oral morphine equivalents (MEs) in the LPB group compared to 0.6 (IQR: 0.5, 0.9) in the CEA group (p=0.479). Postoperative opioid use over the first 48 hrs was 4 (IQR: 1, 6) mg/kg of oral ME in the LPB group, compared to 2 (interquartile range [IQR]: 1, 3) in the CEA group (p=0.103). Over the first 24 hrs after surgery, the median pain score in the LPB group was 5 (IQR: 1–6), compared to 3 (IQR: 0, 5) in the CEA group (p=0.014).Conclusion: These retrospective data suggest a modest postoperative benefit of CEA when compared to LPB following hip surgery in the pediatric population. Postoperative pain scores were lower in patients receiving CEA; however, no difference in the intraoperative or postoperative opioid requirements was noted between the two groups.

Background and Objectives Perineural dexamethasone has been demonstrated to extend postsurgical analgesia after peripheral nerve blockade in adults. The mechanism of action of dexamethasone as a regional anesthetic adjuvant is unclear as intravenous dexamethasone has been shown to have similar analgesic efficacy as perineural dexamethasone. The efficacy of perineural dexamethasone has not been previously explored in the pediatric population. Methods After obtaining informed consent, children (aged 10–18 years) presenting for arthroscopic knee surgery with a femoral nerve block were randomized to 1 of 3 groups: ropivacaine 0.5% and intramuscular saline (group R), ropivacaine 0.5% plus perineural dexamethasone 0.1 mg/kg (maximum 4 mg) and intramuscular saline (group D), and ropivacaine 0.5% and intramuscular dexamethasone 0.1 mg/kg (maximum 4 mg) (group M). The primary outcome was the number of doses of analgesic agents in the first 48 hours after hospital discharge. The number of doses was compared across study groups using Wilcoxon rank sum tests. Results Seventy-seven patients were enrolled in the study, of whom 4 were withdrawn because of additional surgical repair being performed, emergence delirium requiring unblinding, or loss to follow-up. The remaining 36 boys and 37 girls (aged 15 ± 2 years) included 23 patients randomized to group D, 23 patients randomized to group M, and 27 patients randomized to group R. The median number of pain medication doses within 48 hours of discharge was 2, 3, and 2 in groups D, M, and R, respectively. There were no significant differences in this outcome between groups D and M (difference in medians, 1; 95% confidence interval [CI] of difference in medians, −1 to 2; P = 0.475), groups D and R (difference in medians, 0; 95% CI of difference, −2 to 1; P = 0.821), or groups M and R (difference in medians, −1; 95% CI of difference, −2 to 1; P = 0.594). Other secondary outcomes, including time to first analgesic consumption after discharge, visual analog scale pain score, and subjective intensity of motor block, did not evince statistically significant differences among the study groups. Conclusions In the pediatric population, perineural or intramuscular dexamethasone did not improve analgesia after femoral nerve blockade for knee arthroscopy. Whether the observed lack of benefit reflects a true adult-pediatric difference or a limitation of the study could not be determined. Future pediatric studies are needed to evaluate dexamethasone for other block types and other types of surgery. Clinical Trial Registration This study was registered at ClinicalTrials.gov, identifier NCT01971645.

Background The distance from the dura to spinal cord is not uniform at different vertebral levels. The dura to spinal cord distance may be a critical factor in avoiding the potential for neurological injury caused by needle trauma after a dural puncture. Typically, the greater the dura to spinal cord distance, the larger the potential safety margin. The objective of our study is to measure dura to spinal cord distance at two thoracic levels T6 -7 , T9 -10 , and one lumbar level L1 -2 using MRI images. Methods Eighty-eight children under the age of 8 years old qualified for the study. The distance from dural side of ligamentum flavum to the posterior margin of the spinal cord was defined as dura to spinal cord distance. Sagittal T2 -weighted images of the thoracic and lumbar spine were used to measure the dura to spinal cord distance at the T6-7 , T9-10 , and L1-2 interspaces. Measurements were taken perpendicular to long axis of the vertebral body at each level. Results The dura to spinal cord distance was 5.9 ± 1.6 mm at T6-7 (range: 1.4-9.9 mm), 5.0 ± 1.6 mm at T9-10 (1.2-8.1 mm), and 3.6 ± 1.2 mm at L1-2 (1.2-6.8 mm). There were no evident differences in dura to spinal cord distance by gender, age, height, or weight. Conclusion The present study reports that the largest dura to spinal cord distance is found at the T5-6 level, and the shortest dura to spinal cord distance at the L1-2 level. There appears to be substantially more room in the dorsal subarachnoid space at the thoracic level. The risk of spinal cord damage resulting from accidental epidural needle advancement may be greater in the lumbar region due to a more dorsal location of the spinal cord in the vertebral canal compared to the thoracic region.

Lance M Relland,1,2 Joseph D Tobias,1–3 David Martin,1,2 Giorgio Veneziano,1,2 Ralph J Beltran,1,2 Christopher McKee,1,2 Tarun Bhalla1,2 1Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Nationwide Children’s Hospital, 2Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, 3Department of Pediatrics, Nationwide Children’s Hospital, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH, USA Background: Umbilical hernia repair is a common pediatric surgical procedure. While opioid analgesics are a feasible option and have long been a mainstay in the pharmacological intervention for pain, the effort to improve care and limit opioid-related adverse effects has led to the use of alternative techniques, including regional anesthesia. The current study prospectively compares the analgesic efficacy of three techniques, including caudal epidural blockade, peripheral nerve blockade, and local wound infiltration, in a double-blinded study.Patients and methods: A total of 39 patients undergoing umbilical hernia repair were randomized to receive a caudal epidural block (CDL), ultrasound-guided bilateral rectus sheath blocks (RSB), or surgical site infiltration (SSI) with local anesthetic. Intraoperative anesthetic care was standardized, and treatment groups were otherwise blinded from the intraoperative anesthesiology team and recovery nurses. Postoperatively, the efficacy was evaluated using Hannallah pain scores, Aldrete recovery scores, the need for intravenous fentanyl, and the time to discharge.Results: Each cohort was similar in terms of age, weight, premedication dosing, length of case, intraoperative and postoperative fentanyl requirements, and time to tracheal extubation. Among the three cohorts, there were no significant differences noted in terms of pain scores or time to recovery.Conclusion: All the three techniques provided effective analgesia following umbilical hernia repair. Our findings offer effective and safe analgesic options as alternatives to the neuraxial (caudal) approach. Keywords: caudal, pediatric, rectus sheath, regional anesthesia, umbilical hernia&nbsp

Introduction: Pain management has become a widely discussed topic throughout all medical subspecialties. Although pediatric pain management has evolved significantly in its recent history, there is continued interest in the adequacy of pain treatment, both in the acute inpatient setting as well as the postoperative and chronic pain management setting. Although health care providers are becoming more aggressive concerning prompt and effective treatment of acute and chronic pain, safety data and adverse effects of narcotic analgesics may be overlooked. Areas covered: The authors review the current paradigm of acute pain management with an emphasis on oral narcotic medications, and the safety data available concerning prescribing these medications. Expert opinion: Further, the authors present their opinions concerning current and future practices regarding the prescribing practice of opiate analgesics, as well as a step-wise approach for acute oral pain management.

Various complications have been reported with nasal endotracheal intubation including bleeding, epistaxis, bacteremia, damage to intranasal structures, and even intracranial penetration. We present two cases that required general anesthesia for dental surgery. Submucosal dissection of the retropharyngeal tissues occurred during attempted nasal endotracheal intubation. Previous reports of this complication are reviewed, treatment strategies presented, and potential maneuvers to prevent this complication suggested.

Summary Background Neonates and infants have decreased metabolic capacity for amide local anesthetics and increased risk of local anesthetic toxicity compared to the general population. Chloroprocaine is an ester local anesthetic that has an extremely short plasma half-life in infants as well as adults. Existing reports support the safety and efficacy of continuous chloroprocaine epidural infusions in neonates and young infants during the intraoperative period. Despite this, continuous chloroprocaine epidural infusion may be an under-utilized method of postoperative analgesia for this patient population. In particular, it may improve pain control in neonates and infants with incisions stretching many dermatomes or those with hepatic impairment. Methods We retrospectively reviewed our experience over 4 years with continuous chloroprocaine epidural infusions in neonates, infants, and children with a focus on the postoperative management of pain. Results Twenty-one pediatric patients received continuous 2-chloroprocaine epidural infusions for postoperative pain management from January 2010 to April 2014 for thoracic, abdominal, and limb procedures. The epidural infusion consisted of 1.5% chloroprocaine or 1.5% chloroprocaine with fentanyl. Tabulating the morphine and hydromorphone used for rescue analgesia, the median (interquartile range) opioid consumption (mg·kg−1·day−1 of intravenous morphine equivalents) for the first, second, and third 24-h postoperative periods were 0.02 (0–0.48), 0.30 (0–0.44), and 0.14 (0–0.29), respectively. Examining the total fentanyl usage, the median (interquartile range) fentanyl consumption (μg·kg−1·day−1) for first, second, and third 24-h postoperative periods were 3.89 (0.41–7.24), 0 (0.00–4.06), and 0 (0.00–0.51), respectively. The median N-PASS score assessed every 6 h from 0 to 72 h postoperatively was 0, 1, 2, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, and 0, respectively. The median FLACC score assessed every 6 h from 0 to 72 h postoperatively was 0, 0, 2, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, and 0, respectively. Conclusion The results suggest that chloroprocaine offers an efficacious alternative to the amide local anesthetics for postoperative epidural analgesia in the pediatric population.

This case discusses both pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamics interactions between turmeric and warfarin.

Neuroblastomas are the most common, non-central nervous system tumor of childhood. Similar to pheochromocytomas, they are derived from neural crest cells and therefore retain the potential to synthesize catecholamines. Unlike pheochromocytomas, however, perioperative issues related to blood pressure instability with hypertension are uncommon. We report details of a 3-year-old child with a neuroblastoma who developed severe hypertension and end-organ effects after induction of anesthesia. The association of such problems with neuroblastoma is reviewed and options for perioperative care presented.

Nerve stimulation may occur despite the presence of a fascial barrier between the needle tip and the nerve, which may prevent appropriate flow or distribution of local anesthetic solution. During an axillary nerve block, ultrasound (US) guidance was used to identify the median nerve. Insertion of a needle with US and nerve stimulator guidance resulted in the appearance of the needle tip in contact with the nerve. However, as local anesthetic injection was begun, it was clear that the injectate was accumulating superficial to the investing fascia of the neurovascular bundle. No injectate was seen below the fascia. With US guidance, the needle was repositioned at a greater depth. Repeat injection of local anesthetic clearly flowed around the nerve.

Management of chronic pain by intrathecal delivery is gaining increasing use. The aim of this article is to review the literature pertinent to implantable devices used for treatment of chronic pain, and to highlight what is known. Articles were obtained from Medline database and reviewed. Practical patient selection criteria, trial management, and surgical technique are described. Expert consensus guidelines for intrathecal medication use are also reviewed. Finally, an exhaustive description of known complications and future implications is discussed. We concluded that intrathecal pump seems to be overused, while there is still weak evidence to support its outcome. It is also recommended that future research focus on the outcome, measured by functional parameters rather than commonly used pain scores.

Management of chronic pain by intrathecal delivery is gaining increasing use. The aim of this article is to review the literature pertinent to implantable devices used for treatment of chronic pain, and to highlight what is known. Articles were obtained from Medline database and reviewed. Practical patient selection criteria, trial management, and surgical technique are described. Expert consensus guidelines for intrathecal medication use are also reviewed. Finally, an exhaustive description of known complications and future implications is discussed. We concluded that intrathecal pump seems to be overused, while there is still weak evidence to support its outcome. It is also recommended that future research focus on the outcome, measured by functional parameters rather than commonly used pain scores.