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Acknowledgements: Foremost, we deeply appreciate the permission to work on the Povegliano Veronese skeletal collection of Soprintendenza Archeologia belle arti e paesaggio per le province di Verona, Rovigo e Vicenza. We want to thank Dr.Rossella Bedini and Ing. Raffaella Pecci of the Istituto Superiore di Sanità in Rome (IT) for acquiring the Micro CT scans of the vertebra. We thank Dr. Tania Ruspandini of the Department of Scienze della Terra, Sapienza, University of Rome (IT) and Dr. Marco Albano at CNR in Rome (IT) for SEM investigation. We thank Ryan Mills at the University of North Carolina for help with the Sr ratio analysis. Ultimately, we would like to thank Dr. Matteo Mussoni of the Centro Veterinaio Valmarecchia, Rimini, for the X-ray acquisition. This work is part of the doctoral thesis in Environmental and Evolutionary Biology that the first author is carrying out at the Sapienza University of Rome (Italy)., Here we report the reconstruction of the osteobiography of an adult male buried in the Longobard cemetery of Povegliano Veronese (Northern Italy, late 6th – early 8th century CE), who shows signs of interpersonal violence. The palaeopathological investigation reveals sharp force traumas on the body of the fourth lumbar vertebra and on two right ribs. The absence of signs of healing or bone remodelling indicates that the defects were perimortem. The injuries probably affected vital organs, leading to death. Further macroscopic observations of the skeleton suggest horseback-riding activity. Strontium isotope data from tooth enamel indicate a non-local origin of the individual. X-ray and CT scan acquisition and Scanning Electron Microscopy analyses were performed to investigate the bone defects. His osteobiography was interpreted and contextualised in the complex socio-political scenario of post-classical Italy. The results document that he spent his childhood outside the Povegliano Veronese area, that during his life he was likely a horseback rider active in battle, but that his violent death did not happen during warfare/battle. This multi-layered approach, supported by archaeological information, osteological investigation, biomolecular analysis, and virtual imagery, allowed for the extensive reconstruction of an individual's life history.

The increase of brain dimensions and complexity has characterized the evolution of the genus Homo. According to the available fossil and genetic evidence, a crucial stage came before the divergence of Neanderthals, Denisovans and Homo sapiens, during the Middle Pleistocene. We consider a specimen of about 400 ka, whose phenotype is at the roots of this divergence: Ceprano calvarium (Italy). Here, we show a derived cerebrovascular organization with a mosaic of modern human and primitive features characteristics. Computed microtomography shows vascular variation and ontogenetic defects associated with ventricular and lymphatic involvement while phylogenetic analyzes highlight a dysregulation of the Tet1 gene that shows an accelerated mutation rate between 1.2 Ma and 466 ka, in contrast with the expected neutral evolution of the human genome. These results shed light on the dynamics of cranio-cerebral growth during the encephalization process and on the cerebral vascular and lymphatic system involved in this process. The results of this study could have implications for the research of many of the diseases of the central nervous system that have become predominant in an increasingly structured and long-lived brain system such as that of modern Homo sapiens. One-Sentence Summary: Genetic mutation, anatomical variations and glymphatic system in the process of encephalization towards Homo sapiens.

The Longobard necropolis of Castel Trosino dates from the 6th to the 8th century CE. Among the tombs excavated, the skull of an older female shows the first evidence of a cross-shaped bone modification on a living subject. Macroscopic, microscopic, and CT scan analyses revealed signs of at least two sets of scraping marks. Specifically, SEM analysis shows that perimortem bone-scraping traces are present on the skull. Both healed and non-healed defects suggest that the woman has received at least twice intentional bone modifications to address her condition. This is the first evidence of a cross-shaped therapeutic intervention on a living subject.

International audience; This exploratory study proposes an original intra-life history investigation through sequential analysis of the isotopic composition of carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur (CNS) on both primary and secondary dentin of a tooth (M1). We focus on an elderly woman from Longobard Italy (6th to 8th c. CE), who showed an unprecedented case of cranial surgery, presented in a companion paper by Micarelli and colleagues. Sequential stable CNS isotope composition of first molar dentin collagen allows us to infer diet, mobility, health, and physiological stress between approximately 3 months after birth to 9.5 years old (primary dentin) and between early adulthood until death (secondary dentin). Isotopic results on primary dentin highlight the following: (i) a long weaning period (ending at approximately 4 years), followed by (ii) a specific diet, including the contribution of C4 crops in early childhood (approximately 5.5 years), possibly concomitant with mobility. While secondary dentin shows a generally homogeneous diet during adulthood, the longitudinal analysis provided information on specific stresses that likely occurred in periods of difficult health conditions. This work emphasizes the importance of measuring complete dentin sequences (including secondary when present) for isotopic analysis to broaden intra-life histories in ancient populations.

The Fuegians, ancient inhabitants of Tierra del Fuego, are an exemplary case of a cold-adapted population, since they were capable of living in extreme climatic conditions without any adequate clothing. However, the mechanisms of their extraordinary resistance to cold remain enigmatic. Brown adipose tissue (BAT) plays a crucial role in this kind of adaptation, besides having a protective role on the detrimental effect of low temperatures on bone structure. Skeletal remains of 12 adult Fuegians, collected in the second half of XIX century, were analyzed for bone mineral density and structure. We show that, despite the unfavorable climate, bone mineral density of Fuegians was close to that seen in modern humans living in temperate zones. Furthermore, we report significant differences between Fuegians and other cold-adapted populations in the frequency of the Homeobox protein Hox-C4 (HOXC4) rs190771160 variant, a gene involved in BAT differentiation, whose identified variant is predicted to upregulate HOXC4 expression. Greater BAT accumulation might therefore explain the Fuegians extreme cold-resistance and the protection against major cold-related damage. These results increase our understanding of how ecological challenges have been important drivers of human–environment interactions during Humankind history.

The scenario of Homo sapiens origin/s within Africa has become increasingly complex, with a pan-African perspective currently challenging the long-established single-origin hypothesis. In this paper, we review the lines of evidence employed in support of each model, highlighting inferential limitations and possible terminological misunderstandings. We argue that the metapopulation scenario envisaged by pan-African proponents well describes a mosaic diversification among late Middle Pleistocene groups. However, this does not rule out a major contribution that emerged from a single population where crucial derived features-notably, a globular braincase-appeared as the result of a punctuated, cladogenetic event. Thus, we suggest that a synthesis is possible and propose a scenario that, in our view, better reconciles with consolidated expectations in evolutionary theory. These indicate cladogenesis in allopatry as an ordinary pattern for the origin of a new species, particularly during phases of marked climatic and environmental instability. ispartof: Evolutionary Anthropology vol:31 issue:4 pages:199-212 ispartof: location:United States status: published

Several porcupine taxa are reported from the middle Miocene to the early Holocene in the Old World. Among these, five species of the subfamily Hystricinae occurred in Africa approximately in the last 6 Ma: the extinct Hystrix makapanensis, Hystrix leakeyi, and Xenohystrix crassidens and the still living Hystrix africaeaustralis and Hystrix cristata. The large-sized H. makapanensis is reported from numerous sites in East and South Africa between the early Pliocene and Early Pleistocene. In this paper, we describe a new mandible of H. makapanensis from the world-renowned Tanzanian paleontological and archeological site of Olduvai Gorge (HWK West; lowermost Bed II; ca. 1.8–1.7 Ma). The discovery of the new mandible triggered a comprehensive review of the entire African record of H. makapanensis. In particular, we describe or re-analyze the samples from South Africa (Makapansgat Limeworks, Gondolin, Kromdraai, Swartkrans, and Sterkfontein), Tanzania (Olduvai and Laetoli), Ethiopia (Omo Shungura and Hadar), and Kenya (Chemeron), enriching the quantity of specimens confidently referable to this species and above all improving the information on its craniodental anatomy. On this basis, we: (1) propose an emended diagnosis of H. makapanensis; (2) point out the morphological and biometric differences between H. makapanensis and other African Hystricinae (also in terms of body mass); and (3) broaden the knowledge on the geographical and chronological distribution of this extinct species. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10914-021-09588-z.

A number of different approaches are currently available to digitally restore the symmetry of a specimen deformed by taphonomic processes. These tools include mirroring and retrodefor-mation to approximate the original shape of an object by symmetrisation. Retrodeformation has the potential to return a rather faithful representation of the original shape, but its power is limited by the availability of bilateral landmarks. A recent protocol proposed by Schlager and colleagues (2018) overcomes this issue by using bilateral landmarks and curves as well as semilandmarks. Here we applied this protocol to the Middle Pleistocene human cranium from Steinheim (Germany), the holotype of an abandoned species named Homo steinheimensis. The peculiar morphology of this fossil, associated with the taphonomic deformation of the entire cranium and the lack of a large portion of the right side of the face, has given rise to different hypotheses over its phylogenetic position. The reconstruction presented here sheds new light on the taphonomic origin of some features observed on this crucial specimen and results in a morphology consistent with its attribution to the Neanderthal lineage. © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.

Middle PleistoceneHomoin the LevantOur understanding of the origin, distribution, and evolution of early humans and their close relatives has been greatly refined by recent new information. Adding to this trend, Hershkovitzet al.have uncovered evidence of a previously unknown archaicHomopopulation, the “Nesher RamlaHomo” (see the Perspective by Mirazon Lahr). The authors present comprehensive qualitative and quantitative analyses of fossilized remains from a site in Israel dated to 140,000 to 120,000 years ago indicating the presence of a previously unrecognized group of hominins representing the last surviving populations of Middle PleistoceneHomoin Europe, southwest Asia, and Africa. In a companion paper, Zaidneret al.present the radiometric ages, stone tool assemblages, faunal assemblages, and other behavioral and environmental data associated with these fossils. This evidence shows that these hominins had fully mastered technology that until only recently was linked to eitherHomo sapiensor Neanderthals. Nesher RamlaHomowas an efficient hunter of large and small game, used wood for fuel, cooked or roasted meat, and maintained fires. These findings provide archaeological support for cultural interactions between different human lineages during the Middle Paleolithic, suggesting that admixture between Middle PleistoceneHomoandH. sapienshad already occurred by this time.Science, abh3169 and abh3020, this issue p.1424and p.1429; see also abj3077, p.1395

The study of the fossil record is fundamental to understand the evolution of traits. Because fossil remains are often fragmented and/or deformed by taphonomic processes, a preliminary realignment of their constituent parts is often necessary to properly interpret their shapes. In virtual anthropology, these procedures are carried out using digital models of the remains. We present a new semi-automatic alignment R software, Digital Tool for Alignment (DTA), which uses the shape information contained in a reference sample to find the best alignment solution for the disarticulated regions. We tested DTA on three different case-studies: (1) a sample of 14 primate species including both male and female individuals, (2) a simulated, disarticulated skull of Homo sapiens, and (3) a real disarticulated human fossil specimen, Amud 1 (Homo neanderthalensis). In the first case study, we simulated disarticulation directly on digital models of the primate skulls and tested alignment quality as a function of phylogenetic proximity, sex, and body size. In the second, we compared DTA to manual alignments conducted for the same digital models. Finally, we performed DTA on a real-world case study. We found that phylogenetic proximity provides is the most important factor for alignment efficiency. However, sex and allometric effects might also be important and should therefore be taken into account at selecting reference models for alignments. DTA performs at least as well as manual alignments. Yet, as compared to manual procedures, it is faster, requires no prior anatomical knowledge and expertise and allows indefinite manipulation of the fossil items. Anat Rec, 302:1104-1115, 2019. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

SUMMARYThe demographic history is a foundation of human evolutionary studies. However, the ancient demographic history during the Mid-Pleistocene is poorly investigated while it is essential for understanding the early origin of humankind. Here we present the fast infinitesimal time coalescent (FitCoal) process, which allows the analytical calculation of the composite likelihood of a site frequency spectrum and provides the precise inference of demographic history. We apply it to analyze 3,154 present-day human genomic sequences. We find that African populations have passed through a population super bottleneck, a small effective size of approximately 1,280 breeding individuals between 930 and 813 thousand years ago. Further analyses confirm the existence of the super bottleneck on non-African populations although it cannot be directly inferred. This observation, together with simulation results, indicates that confounding factors, such as population structure and selection, are unlikely to affect the inference of the super bottleneck. The time interval of the super bottleneck coincides with a gap in the human fossil record in Africa and possibly marks the origin ofHomo heidelbergensis. Our results provide new insights into human evolution during the Mid-Pleistocene.

Objective This study aims to investigate parasitic infection in Italy during the Roman period (27 BCE–476 CE) and subsequent Longobard (Lombard) period (6th–8th CE). Materials Sediment samples from drains and burials from Roman Imperial-period sites in Italy (Lucus Feroniae, Oplontis, Vacone, and Vagnari), Late Antique and Longobard-period burials at Selvicciola (ca. 4th–8th CE), and Longobard-period burials at Vacone and Povegliano Veronese. Methods Microscopy was used to identify helminth eggs and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to detect protozoan antigens. Results Roundworm and whipworm were found in pelvic sediment from Roman-period burials, while roundworm and the protozoan Giardia duodenalis were identified in Roman-period drains. In pelvic sediment from the Late Antique through Longobard periods, roundworm and Taenia tapeworm eggs were identified. Conclusions Fecal-oral parasites were found throughout Imperial Roman Italy, suggesting that gastrointestinal infections caused a significant disease burden. In the Longobard period we see continuity in transmission of fecal-oral parasites, and the appearance of zoonotic parasites acquired from eating undercooked meat. Significance A wealth of information exists about certain diseases in the Roman period, but relatively little is known about intestinal parasites in Italy during the Roman and Longobard periods. This is the first evidence for Giardia in Roman period Italy, and for any parasites in the Longobard period in Italy. Limitations Low egg concentrations and lack of controls for some samples makes it difficult to differentiate true infections from environmental contamination in some cases. Suggestions for future research Continual study of samples from Roman and Longobard period Italy.

Fossil footprints are very useful palaeontological tools. Their features can help to identify their makers and also to infer biological as well as behavioural information. Nearly all the hominin tracks discovered so far are attributed to species of the genus Homo. The only exception is represented by the trackways found in the late 1970s at Laetoli, which are thought to have been made by three Australopithecus afarensis individuals about 3.66 million years ago. We have unearthed and described the footprints of two more individuals at Laetoli, who were moving on the same surface, in the same direction, and probably in the same timespan as the three found in the 1970s, apparently all belonging to a single herd of bipedal hominins walking from south to north. The estimated stature of one of the new individuals (about 1.65 m) exceeds those previously published for Au. afarensis. This evidence supports the existence of marked morphological variation within the species. Considering the bipedal footprints found at Laetoli as a whole, we can hypothesize that the tallest individual may have been the dominant male, the others smaller females and juveniles. Thus, considerable differences may have existed between sexes in these human ancestors, similar to modern gorillas.

In biological anthropology, parameters relating to cross-sectional geometry are calculated in paired long bones to evaluate the degree of lateralization of anatomy and, by inference, function. Here, we describe a novel approach, newly added to the morphomap R package, to assess the lateralization of the distribution of cortical bone along the entire diaphysis. The sample comprises paired long bones belonging to 51 individuals (10 females and 41 males) from The New Mexico Decedent Image Database with known biological profile, occupational and loading histories. Both males and females show a pattern of right lateralization. In addition, males are more lateralized than females, whereas there is not a significant association between lateralization with occupation and loading history. Body weight, height and long-bone length are the major factors driving the emergence of asymmetry in the humerus, while interestingly, the degree of lateralization decreases in the oldest individuals.

International audience; Decades of fieldwork in the Frosinone-Ceprano basin (Latin Valley, Latium, central Italy) have shed light on numerous open-airLower Palaeolithic localities, delivering a human fossil calvarium, thousands of scattered faunal remains and a large collection oflithic industries, including core-and-flake type lithic series (mode 1) and Acheulean assemblages (mode 2). The continuouslygrowing number of available geochronological data (obtained by 40Ar/39Ar on volcanic minerals, ESR/U-series on large mammalteeth and ESR on bleached fluvial quartz) allow today the construction of a reliable and precise chronological framework for theLower Palaeolithic sites of this area of the Latin Valley. The archaeological horizons with bifaces all appear to belong to a relativelyshort Middle Pleistocene time range, between about 410 and 350 ka, coeval to the end of the interglacial MIS 11 and to the beginningof the following glacial MIS 10. The Acheulean tools are often associated with cores and flakes. Bifaces are mainly made onlimestone, secondary flint and quartz. The archaeological corpus also yielded tools on fragments of large herbivore bones.Comparisons between technological strategies and palaeo-anthropological data at the global scale are now meaningful and enableus to decipher hominin behaviour at a more regional scale. Such careful work is becoming essential in the frame of the recentdiscoveries showing that the MIS 11–10 period was a pivotal period characterized by the appearance of several new archaeologicalfeatures later associated with the Neanderthal lineage in Western Europe. We present here the first in-depth technological study of theAcheulean lithic corpus from the major archaeological sites from the Frosinone-Ceprano basin including the Campogrande localities(CG9 and CG10, intermediate and upper levels), Colle Avarone, Selvotta, Isoletta (level 4), Lademagne (upper and lower levels) andMasseria Castellone. For this work, we focus on biface shaping strategies and demonstrate technological features suggesting theexistence of networks connecting the different human occupation sites. Technological data are compared with otherpenecontemporaneous Italian sites to discuss the hypotheses and characteristics of such early evidence of regionalization inEurope in this specific area of Central Italy. It seems to indicate that glacial conditions characterized by millennial rapid climaticoscillations could have been favourable to the development of specific vegetation propitious to human settlement in South-westernEurope. European vegetation, as it drives the biomass availability for large herbivores, seems hence to have played a crucial role inthe mobility and settlement of human groups.

National audience; Humans have generally been considered risk averse for gains. Yet, growing evidence shows that risk preferences may change across reward currencies and depend on the type of tasks used to measure them. Here, we examined how context affects human risk preferences to shed light on the psychological mechanisms underlying human decision-making under risk. Participants were presented with a descriptive risky choice task involving repeated choices between real options and they were provided with trial-by-trial feedback. We manipulated the type of reward and, for the first time, the format of the choice stimuli. Options were either 2D computer-based images or concrete 3D objects, and participants received food or money as reward. First, we found that participants were more risk-seeking for food compared to money, suggesting that people treat money differently from consumable rewards. Second, we found that people were more risk-seeking when they made choices between concrete 3D objects than between 2D computer-based images. Our results strengthened the evidence that human choice patterns may change depending on the context and, for the first time, showed that the format of the choice stimuli does affect risk preferences, an important consideration for future research.

Modern humans have larger and more globular brains when compared to other primates. Such anatomical features are further reflected in the possession of a moderately asymmetrical brain with the two hemispheres apparently rotated counterclockwise and slid anteroposteriorly on one another, in what is traditionally described as the Yakovlevian torque. Developmental disturbance in human brain asymmetry, or lack thereof, has been linked to several cognitive disorders including schizophrenia and depression. More importantly, the presence of the Yakovlevian torque is often advocated as the exterior manifestation of our unparalleled cognitive abilities. Consequently, studies of brain size and asymmetry in our own lineage indirectly address the question of what, and when, made us humans, trying to trace the emergence of brain asymmetry and expansion of cortical areas back in our Homo antecedents. Here, we tackle this same issue by studying the evolution of human brain size, shape, and asymmetry on a phylogenetic tree including 19 apes and Homo species, inclusive of our fellow ancestors. We found that a significant positive shift in the rate of brain shape evolution pertains to the clade including modern humans, Neanderthals, and Homo heidelbergensis. Although the Yakovlevian torque is well evident in these species and levels of brain asymmetry are correlated to changes in brain shape, further early Homo species possess the torque. Even though a strong allometric component is present in hominoid brain shape variability, this component seems unrelated to asymmetry and to the rate shift we recorded. These results suggest that changes in brain size and asymmetry were not the sole factors behind the fast evolution of brain shape in the most recent Homo species. The emergence of handedness and early manifestations of cultural modernity in the archeological record nicely coincide with the same three species sharing the largest and most rapidly evolving brains among all hominoids. © Copyright © 2020 Melchionna, Profico, Castiglione, Sansalone, Serio, Mondanaro, Di Febbraro, Rook, Pandolfi, Di Vincenzo, Manzi and Raia.

The Neanderthal specimen from Lamalunga Cave, near Altamura (Apulia, Italy), was discovered during a speleological survey in 1993. The specimen is one of the most complete fossil hominins in Europe and its state of preservation is exceptional, although it is stuck in calcareous concretions and the bones are mostly covered by calcite depositions. Nevertheless, it is possible to carry out some observations on craniodental features that have not previously been described. In this work, we present an account of the oral cavity, made possible by the use of a videoscope, which allowed us to reach some hidden parts of the mandible and palate. This is the first detailed overview of the teeth and maxillary bones of the Neanderthal skeleton from Altamura. The dentition is almost complete. However, two teeth (upper right P3 and upper left M1) were lostante mortemand four teeth (lower right I1 and P3 and lower left I1 and I2) were lost most probablypost mortem. Dental wear is marked. The erupted M3s and the inversion of the compensating curve of Wilson in the M1s and M2s but not in the M3s suggest that the individual is fully adult, but not old. Although most of the teeth have their roots exposed for several millimeters, the periodontal bone appears to be in good condition overall, except in correspondence of the twoante-mortemtooth losses. X-rays of the anterior teeth show a periapical lesion, probably linked to the advanced dental wear. We also observed a weak expression of taurodontism in the posterior dentition and the presence of a retromolar space, features consistent with an attribution to the Neanderthal hypodigm; this attribution is also supported by aspects of the cranial morphology, the morphometric analysis of the scapula and preliminary mtDNA data. There is also a well-developed palatine torus, to the best of our knowledge a feature not previously described in Neanderthals.

The arrival of the Longobards in Northern Italy in 568 CE marked a period of renewed political stability in the Peninsula after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. The trajectory of the spread of Longobards in Italy across the Alps and into the South is known from many literary sources. However, their mobility and residence patterns at a population level remain to be fully understood. Here we present a multi-isotopic analysis (87Sr/86Sr and 18O/16O) of 39 humans and 14 animals buried at the Longobard necropolis of Povegliano Veronese (VR, Italy; 6th—8th century CE), to address mode and tempo of the spread of this population in the Peninsula. The geographical location of Povegliano Veronese plays a key role: the site lies along the Via Postumia, which was one of the main ancient Roman roads of Northern Italy, representing an important route in post-classical Italy. The integration of isotopic data with the archaeological evidence allowed us to determine the presence of individuals from at least three different regions of origin, building a diachronic map of the dynamics of mobility of this group in northern Italy.

Objective Concha bullosa is a rather common condition of the nasal turbinates, rarely reported in archaeological skeletal collections. This paper examines a case of concha bullosa as seen in a female cranium from a burial in central Italy, dated to the Longobard domination in the Peninsula (mid-7th– early 8th century CE). Materials The individual under investigation (T86/17) comes from the funerary area of Selvicciola, located near the town of Viterbo in northern Latium, Italy. Methods The skeleton was macroscopically examined. We analyzed the CT-scans of the defect by applying innovative R-based virtual tools. Results It was possible to calculate the inner volume of the concha bullosa and to provide a 3D visual assessment of its shape. Conclusions Its size and shape suggest that the individual had this condition for a considerable period of time, during which its presence may have had affected her daily activities and health status. Significance An under-represented paleopathological defect is examined for the first time through a virtual approach aimed at visualizing its shape and the assessment of its volume. New methods of 3D based virtual assessment can increase the informative value of defects. Suggestions for Further Research Techniques used in this assessment should be considered as an evaluative tool for other conditions when macroscopic and radiographic imaging are limited.

The remains that typically compose the human fossil record often bear cracks, damage, and deformations. The recent rapid development of ‘virtual anthropology’ has provided innovative tools to manag...

A distinctive trait in primate evolution is the expansion in brain mass. The potential drivers of this trend and how and whether encephalization influenced diversification dynamics in this group are hotly debated. We assembled a phylogeny accounting for 317 primate species, including both extant and extinct taxa, to identify macroevolutionary trends in brain mass evolution. Our findings show that Primates as a whole follow a macroevolutionary trend for an increase in body mass, relative brain mass and speciation rate over time. Although the trend for increased encephalization (brain mass) applies to all Primates, hominins stand out for their distinctly higher rates. Within hominins, this unique trend applies linearly over time and starts with Australopithecus africanus. The increases in both speciation rate and encephalization begin in the Oligocene, suggesting the two variables are causally associated. The substitution of early, stem Primates belonging to plesiadapiforms with crown Primates seems to be responsible for these macroevolutionary trends. However, our findings also suggest that cognitive capacities favoured speciation in hominins. © 2019 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society.

The position (FMP) and orientation (FMO) of the foramen magnum have been used as proxies for locomotion and posture in extant and extinct primates. Several indices have been designed to quantify FMP and FMO but their application has led to conflicting results. Here, we test six widely used indices and two approaches (univariate and multivariate) for their capability to discriminate between postural and locomotor types in extant primates and fossil hominins. We then look at the locomotion of australopithecines and Homo on the base of these new findings. The following measurements are used: the opisthocranion-prosthion (OP-PR) and the opisthocranion-glabella (OP-GL) indices, the basion-biporion (BA-BP) and basion-bicarotid chords, the foramen magnum angle (FMA), and the basion-sphenoccipital ratio. After exploring the indices variability using principal component analysis, pairwise comparisons are performed to test for the association between each index and the locomotor and postural habits. Cranial size and phylogeny are taken into account. Our analysis indicates that none of the indices or approaches provides complete discrimination across locomotor and postural categories, although some differences are highlighted. FMA and BA-BP distinguish respectively obligate and facultative bipeds from all other groups. For what concerns posture, orthogrades and pronogrades differ with respects to OP-PR, OP-GL, and FMA. Although the multivariate approach seems to have some discrimination power, the results are most likely driven by facial and neurocranial variability embedded in some of the indices. These results demonstrate that indices relying on the anteroposterior positioning of the foramen may not be appropriate proxies for locomotion among primates. The assumptions about locomotor and postural habits in fossil hominins based on foramen magnum indices should be revised in light of these new findings.