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Abstract Outdoor biting by anopheline mosquitoes is one of the contributors to residual malaria transmission, but the profile of vectors driving this phenomenon is not well understood. Here, we studied the bionomics and genetically characterized populations of An. gambiae and An. funestus complexes trapped outdoors in three selected dryland areas including Kerio Valley, Nguruman and Rabai in Kenya. We observed a higher abundance of Anopheles funestus group members (n = 639, 90.6%) compared to those of the An. gambiae complex (n = 66, 9.4%) with An. longipalpis C as the dominant vector species with a Plasmodium falciparum sporozoite rate (Pfsp) of 5.2% (19/362). The known malaria vectors including An. funestus s.s. (8.7%, 2/23), An. gambiae (14.3%, 2/14), An. rivulorum (14.1%, 9/64), An. arabiensis (1.9%, 1/52) occurred in low densities and displayed high Pfsp rates, which varied with the site. Additionally, six cryptic species found associated with the An. funestus group harbored Pf sporozoites (cumulative Pfsp rate = 7.2%, 13/181). We detected low frequency of resistant 119F-GSTe2 alleles in An. funestus s.s. (15.6%) and An. longipalpis C (3.1%) in Kerio Valley only. Evidence of outdoor activity, emergence of novel and divergent vectors and detection of mutations conferring metabolic resistance to pyrethroid/DDT could contribute to residual malaria transmission posing a threat to effective malaria control.

Insect-specific flaviviruses (ISFs), although not known to be pathogenic to humans and animals, can modulate the transmission of arboviruses by mosquitoes. In this study, we screened 6665 host-seeking, gravid and blood-fed mosquitoes for infection with flaviviruses and assessed the vertebrate hosts of the blood-fed mosquitoes sampled in Baringo and Kajiado counties; both dryland ecosystem counties in the Kenyan Rift Valley. Sequence fragments of two ISFs were detected. Cuacua virus (CuCuV) was found in three blood-fed Mansonia (Ma.) africana. The genome was sequenced by next-generation sequencing (NGS), confirming 95.8% nucleotide sequence identity to CuCuV detected in Mansonia sp. in Mozambique. Sequence fragments of a potential novel ISF showing nucleotide identity of 72% to Aedes flavivirus virus were detected in individual blood-fed Aedes aegypti, Anopheles gambiae s.l., Ma. africana and Culex (Cx.) univittatus, all having fed on human blood. Blood-meal analysis revealed that the collected mosquitoes fed on diverse hosts, primarily humans and livestock, with a minor representation of wild mammals, amphibians and birds. The potential impact of the detected ISFs on arbovirus transmission requires further research.

Hantaviruses are zoonotic rodent-borne viruses that are known to infect humans and cause various symptoms of disease, including hemorrhagic fever with renal and cardiopulmonary syndromes. They have a segmented single-stranded, enveloped, negative-sense RNA genome and are widely distributed. This study aimed to investigate the circulation of rodent-borne hantaviruses in peridomestic rodents and shrews in two semi-arid ecologies within the Kenyan Rift Valley. The small mammals were trapped using baited folding Sherman traps set within and around houses, then they were sedated and euthanatized through cervical dislocation before collecting blood and tissue samples (liver, kidney, spleen, and lungs). Tissue samples were screened with pan-hantavirus PCR primers, targeting the large genome segment (L) encoding the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp). Eleven of the small mammals captured were shrews (11/489, 2.5%) and 478 (97.5%) were rodents. A cytochrome b gene-based genetic assay for shrew identification confirmed the eleven shrews sampled to be Crocidura somalica. Hantavirus RNA was detected in three (3/11, 27%) shrews from Baringo County. The sequences showed 93–97% nucleotide and 96–99% amino acid identities among each other, as well as 74–76% nucleotide and 79–83% amino acid identities to other shrew-borne hantaviruses, such as Tanganya virus (TNGV). The detected viruses formed a monophyletic clade with shrew-borne hantaviruses from other parts of Africa. To our knowledge, this constitutes the first report published on the circulation of hantaviruses in shrews in Kenya.

Aedes simpsoni complex has a wide distribution in Africa and comprises at least three described sub-species including the yellow fever virus (YFV) vector Ae. bromeliae. To date, the distribution and relative contributions of the sub-species and/or subpopulations including bionomic characteristics in relation to YF transmission dynamics remain poorly studied. In this study conducted in two areas with divergent ecosystems: peri-urban (coastal Rabai) and rural (Rift Valley Kerio Valley) in Kenya, survival rate was estimated by parity in Ae. simpsoni s.l. mosquitoes sampled using CO2-baited BG Sentinel traps. We then applied PCR targeting the nuclear internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2), region followed by sequencing and phylogenetic analytics to identify the sibling species in the Ae. simpsoni complex among parous and blood fed cohorts. Our results show that Ae. bromeliae was the most dominant sub-species in both areas, exhibiting high survival rates, human blood-feeding, and potentially, high vectorial capacity for pathogen transmission. We document for the first time the presence of Ae. lilii in Kenya and potentially yet-to-be described species in the complex displaying human feeding tendencies. We also infer a wide host feeding range on rodents, reptile, and domestic livestock besides humans especially for Ae. bromeliae. This feeding trend could likely expose humans to various zoonotic pathogens. Taken together, we highlight the utility of genotype-based analyses to generate precision surveillance data of vector populations for enhanced disease risk prediction and to guide cost-effective interventions (e.g. YF vaccinations).

Jingmen tick virus (JMTV) is an arbovirus with a multisegmented genome related to those of unsegmented flaviviruses. The virus first described in Rhipicephalus microplus ticks collected in Jingmen city (Hubei Province, China) in 2010 is associated with febrile illness in humans. Since then, the geographic range has expanded to include Trinidad and Tobago, Brazil, and Uganda. However, the ecology of JMTV remains poorly described in Africa. We screened adult ticks (n = 4550, 718 pools) for JMTV infection by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Ticks were collected from cattle (n = 859, 18.88%), goats (n = 2070, 45.49%), sheep (n = 1574, 34.59%), and free-ranging tortoises (Leopard tortoise, Stigmochelys pardalis) (n = 47, 1.03%) in two Kenyan pastoralist-dominated areas (Baringo and Kajiado counties) with a history of undiagnosed febrile human illness. Surprisingly, ticks collected from goats (0.3%, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.1–0.5), sheep (1.8%, 95% CI 1.2–2.5), and tortoise (74.5%, 95% CI 60.9–85.4, were found infected with JMTV, but ticks collected from cattle were all negative. JMTV ribonucleic acid (RNA) was also detected in blood from tortoises (66.7%, 95% CI 16.1–97.7). Intragenetic distance of JMTV sequences originating from tortoise-associated ticks was greater than that of sheep-associated ticks. Phylogenetic analyses of seven complete-coding genome sequences generated from tortoise-associated ticks formed a monophyletic clade within JMTV strains from other countries. In summary, our findings confirm the circulation of JMTV in ticks in Kenya. Further epidemiological surveys are needed to assess the potential public health impact of JMTV in Kenya.