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In Spain, 33% of adults aged 30 to 79 years (10 million) were hypertensive in 2019. Among them, 68% were diagnosed, 57% received drug therapy, and effective therapeutic coverage (control) reached 33%. Both diagnosis and control show geographical and social disparities. Approximately 46 000 cardiovascular deaths per year are attributable to hypertension. In recent decades, the control of hypertension has increased, due to improvements in lifestyle measures and increased use of polytherapy, coinciding with a reduction in stroke mortality. There are several modifiable determinants of the lack of hypertension control: a) white-coat phenomenon affects 22% to 33% of treated individuals, partly due to the limited availability of ambulatory blood pressure monitoring (ABPM) (49%) and self-measured BP (SMBP) (78%); b) inadequate patient adherence to medication and healthy lifestyles (weight loss, the most effective measure, is the least used, ≈40%); and c) insufficient use of polytherapy (≈55%). The remaining challenges include: a) technological aspects, such as measuring BP with more accurate techniques (ABPM, SMBP) and using cardiovascular-risk estimation tools (eg, SCORE); b) clinical challenges, such as reducing therapeutic inertia (≈59%), involving patients in their own management (medication adherence, ≈62%) and effectively implementing clinical guidelines); and c) public health challenges, such as reducing the burden of obesity (≈24%), monitoring progress with updated surveys, and setting national BP control targets., (Copyright © 2024 Sociedad Española de Cardiología. Published by Elsevier España, S.L.U. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To examine the frequency of severe hypercholesterolemia (HS) and its clinical profile, and the phenotype of familial hypercholesterolemia (FH), in the primary-care setting in a large health area of the Community of Madrid (CAM)., Material and Methods: Multicenter study of subjects with a health card assigned to 69 health centers (Northwest/CAM area). HS was defined as cholesterol ≥300mg/dL or LDL-cholesterol ≥220mg/dL in any analysis performed (1-1-2018 to 12-30-2021); and FH phenotype as c-LDL ≥240mg/dL (≥160mg/dL if lipid-lowering treatment) with triglycerides <200mg/dL and TSH <5μIU/mL., Results: 156,082 adults ≥18years with an available lipid profile were analyzed. 6187 subjects had HS (3.96% of the laboratory tests studied, 95%CI: 3.87-4.06%). The mean evolution time of the diagnosis of hyperlipidemia in the computerized clinical record was 10.8years, 36.5% had hypertension, 9.5% diabetes and 62.9% overweight/obesity. 83.7% were taking lipid-lowering drugs (65.7% low/moderate and 28.6% high/very high intensity). 6.1% had cardiovascular disease (94.2% treated with lipid-lowering agents), with LDL-cholesterol <55, <70 and <100mg/dL of 1.8%, 5.8% and 20.2%, respectively (vs. 1%, 2.3% and 11.2% if no cardiovascular disease). 1600 subjects had FH phenotype (95%CI: 1.03%, 0.98-1.08%)., Conclusions: Four out of 100 patients analyzed in primary care have HS, with high treatment level, but insufficient intensity, and poor achievement of treatment goals. One in 100 have the FH phenotype. The identification of both dyslipidemias by computerized records would allow their more precise and early detection and establish cardiovascular preventive strategies., (Copyright © 2023 Sociedad Española de Arteriosclerosis. Publicado por Elsevier España, S.L.U. All rights reserved.)

Background: With implementation of stricter blood pressure (BP) treatment targets, potential for excessive BP lowering becomes an important issue, especially in older patients., Objectives: Assess the magnitude, indicators and detection effort of BP levels below-target-range (BTR-BP) recommended by the European hypertension guidelines in older treated hypertensive patients (130-139/70-79 mmHg)., Design: Cross-sectional, retrospective study (Seniors-ENRICA-2 cohort)., Setting: General population., Subjects: 1,329 treated hypertensive patients aged ≥65, assessed with three home casual BP measurements and 24-hour ambulatory BP monitoring (ABPM)., Methods: Based on the European hypertension guidelines and the literature, BTR-BPs were defined as mean BP <130/70, <125/65, <130/70 and <110/55 mmHg, for casual BP, 24-hour BP, daytime BP and nighttime BP, respectively, and hypotension as <110/70, <105/65, <110/70 and <90/55 mmHg, respectively., Results: Participants' mean age was 72 ± 4.4 (50.3%, women). Based on casual BP, 7.2% of patients were in target range (130-139/70-79 mmHg), 44.3% in BTR-BP (<130/70) and 20.8% hypotensive (<110/70). Some 44.9, 54.9 and 22.0% of patients were in BTR-BP for 24-hour BP, daytime BP and nighttime BP, respectively, and 11.0, 21.1 and 5.6%, respectively, were hypotensive. The number of patients needed for ABPM to detect one case of 24-hour-, daytime-, and nighttime-BTR-BP was 3, 2 and 5, respectively, and 10, 5 and 18, respectively, for detecting one hypotensive case. Cardiovascular disease and female sex were associated with both BTR-BP and hypotension, and the number of antihypertensive drugs was only associated with hypotension., Conclusions: BTR-BP levels were common in older treated patients at home and in everyday life, more frequent than many trials report, and daytime ABPM is highly size-efficient for detecting the low ambulatory BP conditions., (© The Author(s) 2022. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the British Geriatrics Society. All rights reserved. For permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Elevated blood pressure (BP) is the single most important contributing risk factor to the global disease burden, leading to over 10 million deaths each year. In Spain, hypertension (HTN) affects around 20% of the adult population and remains the greatest attributable cause of cardiovascular mortality. May Measurement Month (MMM) is a worldwide initiative aimed at increasing awareness of HTN and to improve the lack of screening programmes worldwide. An opportunistic cross-sectional survey of volunteers aged 18 and over was carried out in May 2018. Blood pressure measurement, the definition of HTN and statistical analysis followed the standard MMM protocol. Anthropometric data and responses to questionnaires on demographic, lifestyle, and environmental factors were obtained as additional information. Screening sites mainly in community pharmacies, universities, primary care centres, HTN units, and cardiovascular departments in hospitals were set up across Spain as part of this initiative. In total, 7646 individuals (63.5% female) were screened during MMM18. After multiple imputation, 40.0% had HTN, of whom 74.4% were aware of their diagnosis and 69.6% were taking antihypertensive medication. Of individuals not receiving antihypertensive medication, 16.9% were hypertensive. Of individuals receiving antihypertensive medication, 36.4% had uncontrolled BP. MMM18 almost doubled the number of participants of MMM17 and was the largest BP screening campaign ever undertaken in Spain, showing that in the absence of systematic screening programmes for HTN, MMM can identify a great number of individuals at risk, increasing their awareness and attracting the interest of the healthcare system in Spain., (Published on behalf of the European Society of Cardiology. © The Author(s) 2020.)

Objectives: Unlike the 2018 European Society of Cardiology/European Society of Hypertension (ESC/ESH) guideline, the 2017 American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association (ACC/AHA) guideline has recommended a shift in hypertension definition from blood pressure (BP) 140/90-130/80 mmHg. Further, they proposed somewhat different indications for antihypertensive medication. No data are available on the comprehensive impact of these guidelines in European countries, where physicians do not always follow guidelines from their own continent. We estimated the prevalence of hypertension, recommendations for antihypertensive medication, and cardiometabolic goals achieved in Spain using the ESC/ESH versus ACC/AHA guidelines., Methods: We analyzed data from a national survey on 12074 individuals representative of the population aged at least 18 years in Spain. BP was measured with standardized procedures., Results: According to the ESC/ESH and ACC/AHA guidelines, hypertension prevalence was 33.1% (95% confidence interval: 32.2-33.9%) and 46.9% (46.0-47.8%), respectively, and antihypertensive medication was recommended for 33.5% (32.7-34.3%) and 37.2% (36.3-38.1%) of adults, respectively. This represents 5.3 more million hypertensive patients and 1.4 more million candidates for medication (for a 40-million-adults' country) using the ACC/AHA versus the ESC/ESH guideline. Participants who were hypertensive under the ACC/AHA but not the ESC/ESH guideline achieved less frequently some cardiometabolic goals (e.g. nonsmoking, reduced salt consumption, LDL cholesterol if hypercholesterolemic, lifestyle medical advice, and treatment with renin-angiotensin-system blockers where indicated) than those who were hypertensive under the ESC/ESH guideline., Conclusion: The implementation of the ACC/AHA versus the ESC/ESH guideline would result in a substantial increase in the prevalence of hypertension and the number of adults who should receive medication. There is room for improvement in lifestyles and cardioprotective treatment in individuals with BP of 130-9/80-9 mmHg whether they are called hypertensive (ACC/AHA) or not (ESC/ESH). We suggest that clinical-practice guidelines should consider the public health and costs implications, and not only the evidence on effectiveness and cost-effectiveness, of their recommendations.

May Measurement Month 2017 is a global initiative aimed at raising awareness of high blood pressure (BP) and to act as a temporary solution to the lack of screening programs worldwide, in which Spain participated actively. The primary objective was to raise awareness and increase control of BP in Spain. An opportunistic cross-sectional survey of volunteers aged ≥18 was set up in May 2017. Following the design of the International Society of Hypertension, data were collected from the 17 autonomous communities in which Spain is divided, mainly in community pharmacies, primary care centres and some hypertension (HT) units, and cardiovascular departments in hospitals. No additional training of volunteers was necessary. A total of 3849 individuals were screened. After multiple imputation, our data showed that 1923 (50.0%) had HT. In those not receiving antihypertensive medication, 17.5% were hypertensives, in individuals receiving antihypertensive medication, 33.9% had uncontrolled BP. May Measurement Month 2017 was the largest BP screening campaign undertaken in Spain. In total, 17.5% of people with HT did not receive medication. One-third of hypertensive participants receiving treatment did not have their BP controlled. These results confirm that an opportunistic screening can identify a significant number of subjects with and untreated and inadequately treated BP.

Background and Objective: Frailty and disability are associated with cardiovascular risk factors, including hypertension, in older people; however, little is known about their association with ambulatory blood pressure (BP). Thus, we assessed the relationship of frailty and disability with ambulatory BP in older adults., Design, Setting, and Participants: Cross-sectional study of 1047 community-living individuals aged ≥60 years in Spain., Measurements: BP was determined with validated devices under standardized conditions during 24 hours. Frailty was defined as having 3 or more of the following criteria: weight loss, low grip strength, low energy, slow gait speed, and low physical activity. Disability was assessed with the Lawton-Brodýs questionnaire on instrumental activities of daily living. Associations with systolic BP (SBP) and dipping (nocturnal SBP decline) were modeled and adjusted for sociodemographic variables, body mass index, lifestyles, antihypertensive drug treatment, comorbidities, 24-hour heart rate, and conventional or ambulatory SBP as appropriate., Results: Participants' mean age was 71.7 years (50.8% men); 6% were frail and 8.1% had disability. Compared with nonfrail participants, those with frailty had 3.5 mm Hg lower daytime SBP (P = .001), 3.3% less SBP dipping (P = .003), and 3.6 mmHg higher nighttime SBP (P = .016). Compared with participants who are not disabled, those who are disabled had 2.5 mmHg lower daytime SBP (P = .002), 2.5% less SBP dipping (P = .003), and 2.7 mmHg higher nighttime SBP (P = .011)., Conclusions: In community-dwelling older adults, frailty and disability were independently associated with lower diurnal SBP, blunted nocturnal decline of SBP, and higher nocturnal SBP. These findings may help explain the higher mortality associated with low clinic SBP in frail older subjects observed in epidemiologic studies., (Copyright © 2017 AMDA – The Society for Post-Acute and Long-Term Care Medicine. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Blood pressure (BP) variability and nocturnal decline in blood pressure are associated with cardiovascular outcomes. However, little is known about whether these indexes are associated with white-coat and masked hypertension. We performed a cross-sectional analysis of 1047 community-dwelling individuals aged ⩾60 years in Spain in 2012. Three observer-measured home BPs and 24-h ambulatory blood pressure monitoring (ABPM) were performed under standardized conditions. BP variability was defined as BP s.d. and coefficient of variation. Differences in BP variability and nocturnal BP decrease between groups were adjusted for sociodemographic and clinical covariates using generalized linear models. Of the cohort, 21.7% had white-coat hypertension, 7.0% had masked hypertension, 21.4% had sustained hypertension, and 49.9% were normotensive. Twenty-four hour, daytime and night-time systolic BP s.d. and coefficients of variation were significantly higher in subjects with white-coat hypertension than those with normotension (P<0.05) and were similar to subjects with sustained hypertension. In untreated subjects, 24-h but not daytime or night-time BP variability indexes were significantly higher in subjects with white-coat hypertension than in those with normotension (P<0.05). Percentage decrease in nocturnal systolic and diastolic BP was greatest in the white-coat hypertension group and lowest in the masked hypertension group in all patients and untreated patients (P<0.05). Lack of nocturnal decline in systolic blood pressure was observed in 70.2% of subjects with normotension, 57.8% of subjects with white-coat hypertension, 78.1% of subjects with masked hypertension, and 72.2% of subjects with sustained hypertension (P<0.001). In conclusion, 24-h BP variability was higher in subjects with white-coat hypertension and blunted nocturnal BP decrease was observed more frequently in subjects with masked hypertension. These findings may help to explain the reports of increased cardiovascular risk in patients with white-coat hypertension and poor prognosis in those with masked hypertension, highlighting the importance of ABPM.

Background and Objective: The impact of ambulatory blood pressure monitoring (ABPM) on hypertension control has not been fully assessed across the treatment spectrum in older community-living individuals and could have important implications; specifically, the number of untreated, undertreated, and treatment-resistant uncontrolled hypertensives in need of or with unnecessary drug treatment could vary with respect to studies based on conventional blood pressure (BP) measured in clinical settings., Design, Setting, and Participants: Cross-sectional study conducted in 2012 among 1118 community-living individuals aged ≥60 years in Spain., Measurements: Three conventional BP measurements at participants' homes and 24-hour ABPM were performed under standardized conditions. Uncontrolled hypertension (mean of the last 2 conventional BP readings ≥140/90 mm Hg) was considered undertreated if on 1 or 2 antihypertensive drugs, and apparently treatment-resistant if on ≥3 drugs. White-coat effect was defined as conventional BP ≥ 140/90 mm Hg and 24-hour BP <130/80 mm Hg., Results: Of 720 hypertensive patients (mean age, 72.3 ± 6.3 years; 51.3%, males), 64.4% had conventional BP ≥ 140/90 mm Hg, and from these 39.9% were untreated, 49.5% undertreated, and 10.6% apparently treatment-resistant. Among uncontrolled hypertensive patients, the white-coat effect was present in 52.4% of those untreated, in 53.5% of undertreated, and in 49% of apparent treatment-resistant. These white-coat results were similar or even higher across alternative BP thresholds., Conclusions: One-half of older uncontrolled hypertensive patients studied at home were actually controlled according to ABPM, regardless of treatment status. This suggests reconsideration of treatment needs in these numerous white-coat hypertensive patients, who probably do not need drug treatment initiation or intensification., (Copyright © 2015 AMDA – The Society for Post-Acute and Long-Term Care Medicine. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Introduction and Objectives: Estimate leptin reference values and calculate leptinemia cutoff values for identifying cardiometabolic abnormalities in Spain., Methods: Cross-sectional study carried out between 2008 and 2010 in 11 540 individuals representing the Spanish population aged ≥ 18 years. Data were obtained by standardized physical examination and analyses were performed at a central laboratory. Leptinemia was measured using ELISA. Cardiometabolic abnormality was defined as the presence of at least two of the following: high blood pressure, high triglycerides, reduced high density lipoprotein cholesterol, high insulin resistance values, and elevated C-reactive protein and glucose., Results: Leptin values were higher in women than men (geometric mean, 21.9 and 6.6 ng/mL; P<.001). The median [interquartile range] was 24.5 [14.1-37.0] ng/mL in women, and 7.2 [3.3-14.3] ng/mL in men. In the multivariate analysis, leptin was significantly associated with anthropometric measures, insulin, and C-reactive protein, and inversely associated with age, smoking, and physical activity in women (r(2)=0.53; P<.001) and in men (r(2)=0.61; P<.001). The leptin values that identified cardiometabolic abnormality were 23.75 ng/mL in women (area under the curve, 0.722; sensitivity, 72.3%; specificity, 58.7%) and 6.45 ng/mL in men (area under the curve, 0.716; sensitivity, 71.4%; specificity, 60.2%)., Conclusions: These results facilitate the interpretation of leptin values in clinical and population studies. Leptin has moderate sensitivity and specificity for identifying cardiometabolic abnormalities., (Copyright © 2014 Sociedad Española de Cardiología. Published by Elsevier España, S.L.U. All rights reserved.)

Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring (ABPM) accurately classifies blood pressure (BP) status but its impact on the prevalence and control of hypertension is little known. The authors conducted a cross-sectional study in 2012 among 1047 individuals 60 years and older from the follow-up of a population cohort in Spain. Three casual BP measurements and 24-hour ABPM were performed under standardized conditions. Approximately 68.8% patients were hypertensive based on casual BP (≥140/90 mm Hg or current BP medication use) and 62.1% based on 24-hour ABPM (≥130/80 mm Hg or current BP medication use) (P=.009). The proportion of patients with treatment-eligible hypertension who met BP goals increased from 37.4% based on the casual BP target to 54.1% based on the 24-hour BP target (absolute difference, 16.7%; P<.01). These results were consistent across alternative BP thresholds. Therefore, compared with casual BP, 24-hour ABPM led to a reduction in the proportion of older patients recommended for hypertension treatment and a substantial increase in the proportion of those with hypertension control., (© 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Familial combined hyperlipidemia (FCH) is a frequent disorder associated with premature coronary artery disease. It is transmitted in an autosomal dominant manner, although there is not a unique gene involved. The diagnosis is performed using clinical criteria, and variability in lipid phenotype and family history of hyperlipidemia are necessaries. Frequently, the disorder is associated with type2 diabetes mellitus, arterial hypertension and central obesity. Patients with FCH are considered as high cardiovascular risk and the lipid target is an LDL-cholesterol <100mg/dL, and <70mg/dL if cardiovascular disease or type 2 diabetes are present. Patients with FCH require lipid lowering treatment using potent statins and sometimes, combined lipid-lowering treatment. Identification and management of other cardiovascular risk factors as type 2 diabetes and hypertension are fundamental to reduce cardiovascular disease burden. This document gives recommendations for the diagnosis and global treatment of patients with FCH directed to specialists and general practitioners., (Copyright © 2014 Sociedad Española de Médicos de Atención Primaria (SEMERGEN). Publicado por Elsevier España. All rights reserved.)

Introduction and Objectives: The prevalence of resistant hypertension has recently been reported, but there are no studies on its demography. This study aimed to examine the demography and clinical characteristics of resistant hypertension in a large sample of primary care patients., Methods: A cross-sectional study was performed of all computerized medical records of hypertensive patients in Health Area 6 of Madrid (Spain). Of 63 167 hypertensive patients, we selected 48 744 with prescription of antihypertensive medication; of these, we selected those who met the American Heart Association criteria for resistant hypertension., Results: A total of 6292 patients had resistant hypertension, representing 9.9% of all hypertensive patients and 12.9% of those treated. A total of 5.5% were < 50 years (8.5% men and 3.2% women) and 24.7% were > 80 years (15.8% men and 31.4% women) (P < .001). In patients < 50 years, resistant hypertension was associated with male sex (odds ratio female/male = 0.006; 95% confidence interval, 0.000-0.042; P < .001), systolic blood pressure, obesity, stroke, and chronic kidney disease (P < .001). In those > 80 years, resistant hypertension was associated with female sex (odds ratio female/male = 1.27; 95% confidence interval, 1.08-1,10; P = .004), systolic blood pressure, diabetes mellitus, obesity, chronic kidney disease, coronary heart disease, and atrial fibrillation (P < .001). More than 50% of patients > 80 years with resistant hypertension had cardiovascular disease., Conclusions: One in 4 patients with resistant hypertension is > 80 years. Resistant hypertension is associated with cardiovascular disease, age < 50 years in men and age > 80 years in women. There is a high proportion of cardiovascular disease in elderly patients with resistant hypertension., (Copyright © 2013 Sociedad Española de Cardiología. Published by Elsevier Espana. All rights reserved.)