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As part of the European Green Deal, the EU has recognised that there is a need to increase organic farming as well as improve animal welfare standards. The PIGLOW app was developed with these goals in mind and allows free-range and organic pig farmers to perform welfare assessments (WAs) of their pigs. The results of each WA contain automated feedback and benchmarking information. The objective of this two-year longitudinal study was to determine whether regular use of the app helps farmers improve pig welfare. Farmers ( n = 12) were asked to perform 6 WAs for finisher pigs with the app. At the beginning and end of the study, a researcher visited each farm and performed a detailed WA to determine the welfare status of the pigs at both moments. Farmers ( n = 11) also filled out surveys about their opinions on pig welfare and the PIGLOW app. The welfare results did not support that the use of the PIGLOW app had an overall effect on pig welfare, but suggested a positive effect on some specific welfare aspects. Farmers indicated that they found the app easy to use and found most of its elements very useful. However, when asked about the specific influence of the app on their opinions on pig welfare and the welfare of their pigs, they indicated that the app only had small effects. Responses suggested that the app could likely be more useful to new farmers who still have more to learn about animal welfare., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflicts of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results.

Information on the behavior of chickens hatched in different systems is limited and inconsistent across different studies. Changes in broiler activity can be measured automatically and continuously. The aim of this study was to assess the effects of 3 hatching systems on flock activity using a commercial tracking system, and to compare these findings to individual activity measured under experimental conditions. As this experiment was part of a larger study, it was possible to investigate the effects of vaccination on individual activity. In study 1, flock activity was measured in chickens that hatched either conventionally in the hatchery (HH), in a system which provided nutrition in the hatcher (HF), or on-farm (OH). Chickens were reared in 2 batches, in 12 pens/batch (1,155 animals/pen). One camera recorded top-view images of each pen. A daily activity index (moved pixels/total pixels × 100) was calculated by automated image analysis. In study 2, individual activity was measured under experimental conditions using an ultra-wideband (UWB) system. Chickens from the 3 hatching systems were reared in 3 pens (1 pen/treatment, 30 animals/pen). At d14, UWB-tags were attached to 5 chickens/pen, which tracked the distances moved (DM). In study 1, group level activity showed a significant age × hatching system interaction (F 8,752 = 5.83, P < 0.001). HH and HF chickens showed higher activity levels than OH chickens in wk 1, 4, and 5. In wk 3, higher activity levels were measured in HH compared to HF, and in HF compared to OH pens. In contrast, HH chickens in small groups in study 2 showed lower DM than HF and OH chickens in wk 3 (P < 0.001). DM did not differ between treatments before vaccination, however, thereafter, HH chickens showed longer DM, whereas HF and OH chickens moved less. The results indicate that hatching system affected broiler activity at specific ages. Effects found at flock level could not be reproduced by individual measurements in study 2, although stocking density was comparable., (Copyright © 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Veterinarians are increasingly confronted with new technologies, such as Precision Livestock Farming (PLF), which allows for automated animal monitoring on commercial farms. At the same time, we lack information on how veterinarians, as stakeholders who may play a mediating role in the public debate on livestock farming, perceive the use and the impact of such technologies. This study explores the meaning veterinarians attribute to the application of PLF in the context of public concerns related to pig production. Semi-structured interviews were carried out with pig veterinarians located in the Netherlands and Germany. By using an inductive and semantic approach to reflexive thematic analysis, we developed four main themes from the interview data: (1) the advisory role of the veterinarian, which is characterized by a diverse scope, including advice on PLF, generally positive evaluations and financial dependencies; (2) the delineation of PLF technologies as supporting tools, which are seen as an addition to human animal care; (3) the relationship between veterinarian and farmer, which is context-related, ranging from taking sides with to distancing oneself from farmers; and (4) the distance between agriculture and society, in the context of which PLF has both a mitigating and reinforcing potential. The present findings indicate that veterinarians play an active role in the emerging field of PLF in livestock farming. They are aware of and reflect on competing interests of different groups in society and share positions with different stakeholders. However, the extent to which they are able to mediate between stakeholder groups in practice seems to be constrained by external factors, such as financial dependencies., Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10460-023-10450-6., Competing Interests: Competing InterestThe authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (© The Author(s) 2023, Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.)

Alternative hatching systems have been developed for broiler chickens to provide immediately feed and water after hatch and reduce the number or severity of early life stressors. Besides beneficial effects of these alternative hatching systems on chick quality and performance, broiler health and welfare may be positively affected as well. Especially offspring from young broiler breeder flocks may benefit, as they have been shown to be more sensitive to preturbations than offspring from older breeder flocks. This study evaluated effects of hatching systems on chick quality, health and welfare of young breeder flock offspring, using 3 different hatching systems: conventional hatchery-hatched (HH), hatchery-fed (HF), and on-farm hatching (OH). A total of 24 pens were used in a completely randomized block design, with 8 pens per hatching system and 30 chickens per pen. Chick quality at hatch and performance until 35 d of age was improved in the HF and OH compared to HH treatment, but only minor effects were found on the welfare indicators: footpad dermatitis, hock burn, cleanliness, skin lesion and gait score. No effect was observed on the dynamics of a humoral immune response after NCD vaccination, given at d 0 and 14 of age, as no differences between NCD titers were found at d 18. Animals were vaccinated with a live attenuated infectious bronchitis vaccine virus (IBV) at d 28 to address treatment related differences to disease resilience. The expressions of inflammation and epithelial integrity related genes in the trachea and histo-pathological changes in the trachea were examined at 3 d after vaccine administration. No differences between treatment groups were observed. Although beneficial effects of HF and OH systems were found for young breeder flock offspring on chick quality at hatch and body weight posthatch, only one effect of alternative hatching systems on welfare and health indicators were found. No effect of hatching system on humoral immune response or disease resilience was found., (Copyright © 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The equipment used in broiler breeder houses is an important factor in allowing the expression of the various behaviours of the animals, and thus realizing high welfare standards. Presently, detailed requirements for the equipment in broiler breeder houses are not specified in Germany, especially feed space and perch design allowance. One reason is that basic biometric data on broiler breeders are lacking. To close this gap, a pilot study was conducted, and birds' width, weight, and feet were measured. Broiler breeders at 22 weeks of age (50 female and 17 male) were weighed and photographed digitally, and their body widths were calculated from the photographs. Female broiler breeders weighed 2791.80 ± 334.99 g on average and showed a body width of 20.63 ± 1.88 cm. For males, a mean of 3615.88 ± 432.46 g was measured with a body width of 21.94 ± 2.32 cm. Our examinations revealed that a trough side length of 21.00 cm per hen and 22.00 cm per cock must be provided to ensure that all broiler breeders have equal access to feed. The same dimensions should be planned as the perch length for each animal. Measurements of broiler breeders' feet (506 female and 150 male Cobb 500) were performed at 60 weeks of age. The length of each toe and the width and length of the foot pad of both sexes were photographed and measured digitally. Female broiler breeders' feet showed an average length of 10.14 cm, and male birds showed a length of 12.05 cm. Based on recommendations for the perch design for laying hens, round and oval perches for broiler breeders should have a circumference of at least 11.30 cm (female) or 13.40 cm (male). For angular perches, the upper contact area should have a width of 2.80 cm (female) or 3.40 cm (male). The obtained biometric data could be a useful basis for the development of legal requirements for broiler breeders.

Video analysis is a popular and frequently used tool in animal behavior and welfare research. In addition to the actual object of research, video recordings often provide unforeseen information about the progress of the study, the animals or the people involved. Conflicts can arise when this information is weighed against the original intention of the recordings and broader social expectations. Uncertainty may prevent the video observers, often less experienced researchers, to properly address these conflicts, which can pose a threat to animal welfare and research quality and integrity. In this article, we aim to raise awareness of the interrelationship of variables characteristic for video-based animal studies and the potential conflicts emerging from this. We propose stepping stones for a framework which enables a culture of openness in dealing with unexpected and unintended events observed during video analysis. As a basis, a frame of reference regarding privacy and duty of care toward animals should be created and shared with all persons involved. At this stage, expectations and responsibilities need to be made explicit. During running and reporting of the study, the risk of animal welfare and research integrity issues can be mitigated by making conflicts discussible and offering realistic opportunities on how to deal with them. A practice which is outlined and guided by conversation will prevent a mere compliance-based approach centered on checklists and decision trees. Based on these stepping stones, educational material can be produced to foster reflection, co-creation and application of ethical practice., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2022 Giersberg and Meijboom.)

To start milk production, dairy goats need to give birth at least once. While most female kids are reared to become the next generation of dairy goats, only a small proportion of male kids (buck kids) are reared with reproduction aims. The market for buck kid meat, especially within Northern European countries, is currently relatively small compared to the number of bucks born. Therefore, the purposes for buck kids are limited and a substantial proportion of buck kid meat is used for pet food. Due to the limited economic value of buck kids, farmers are faced with a dilemma. Although raising bucks costs more money than it yields, the birth of kids is a prerequisite for production of milk and should be seen as an investment for business-wise healthy dairy goat farming. In that perspective, dairy goat farmers have an ethical responsibility toward buck kids, as well. In this paper, we compare various scenarios of dealing with the issue of surplus male animals. We provide recommendations for the rearing of buck kids based on the sector's experience and current practice in the Netherlands. Reducing the number of surplus (male) offspring, e.g., by an optimized prolonged lactation management and/or by artificial insemination with sex-sorted semen, could alleviate the issue of low value buck kids. Killing surplus animals before or directly after birth, on the other hand, is met with increasing societal scrutiny. Initiatives to propagate a market for buck kid meat for human consumption are important to enable a suitable and sustainable production system. To maintain the health and welfare of goat kids, amongst other factors, sufficient and good quality colostrum, milk, and an appropriate diet as they grow older, needs to be provided. One option to assure the safeguarding of health and welfare of all goat kids are quality assurance schemes for milk production. These schemes make dairy farmers accountable for the health and welfare of all kids in the rearing period, including the provision of colostrum and adequate care for newborn buck kids. We conclude that the combination of reducing the number of surplus kids, increasing the demand for goat products, and quality assurance schemes that may help to safeguard the welfare of buck kids., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Meijer, Goerlich, Brom, Giersberg, Arndt and Rodenburg.)

To avoid the killing of surplus male layer chickens, dual-purpose hybrids are suggested as an alternative approach. These strains may offer additional advantages compared to conventional laying hens, for instance, a lower tendency to develop injurious pecking behavior. The aim of this study was to assess the behavior, with focus on pecking behavior, of conventional layers (Lohmann Brown plus, LB+) and dual-purpose hens (Lohmann Dual, LD). About 1,845 hens per strain with intact beaks were housed in four stable compartments in aviary systems. Video-based scan sampling of general behaviors and continuous observations of pecking behavior were carried out between 25 and 69 weeks of life. With the exception of "dustbathing" and "scratching," hybrid × time during the laying period affected all of the observed general behaviors [ F (2, 89) = 3.92-10.81, P < 0.001-0.05]. With increasing age, the LB+ hens performed more general pecking, more locomotion and less comfort and sitting behavior. General pecking and comfort behavior did not change over time in the LD hens, whereas inactive behaviors increased with age. During continuous observations, a significant hybrid x period interaction was found for all forms of pecking behavior [ F (2, 89) = 4.55-14.80, P < 0.001-0.05]. The LB+ hens showed particularly more severe feather pecking (SFP), which increased with age. In contrast, SFP remained exceptionally low in the LD hens throughout production. Therefore, dual-purpose hybrids should be considered as an alternative to both avoid the killing of surplus male chickens and the development of SFP in laying hen production., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Rieke, Spindler, Zylka, Kemper and Giersberg.)

In on-farm hatching systems, eggs are transported at d 18 of incubation to the broiler farm, where chickens have immediate access to feed and water after hatching. In hatchery-fed systems, newly hatched chickens have immediate access to feed and water in the hatchery and are transported to the farm thereafter. Conventionally hatched chickens can remain without access to feed and water up to 72 h after hatching until placement on the farm. The current study compared day-old chicken quality, performance, and slaughter yield of broiler chickens that were on-farm hatched (OH), hatchery-fed (HF), or conventionally hatchery-hatched (HH). The experiment was performed in 6 rooms in 1 house. Each room contained 2 duplicate pens with approximately 1,155 chickens per pen; 2 rooms with each 2 duplicate pens were assigned to 1 treatment. The experiment was repeated during 3 consecutive production cycles. Chickens originated from young parent stock flocks. Results showed that HF and OH chickens were heavier and longer than HH chickens at day (D) 1. Relative weight of stomach and intestines were highest for OH chickens. The OH chickens had worse day-old chicken quality in terms of navel condition and red hocks than HH and HF chickens. Treatments did not differ in first wk and total mortality. From D0 until slaughter age, body weight was highest for OH, followed by HF and HH. Furthermore, carcass weight at slaughter age (D40) was highest for OH chickens, followed by HF and HH chickens. Breast fillets showed a higher incidence of white striping and wooden breast in HF and OH chickens compared with HH chickens. In conclusion, the current study showed that both OH and HF chickens of young parent flocks had better growth performance, which could explain the higher prevalence of breast myopathies, compared with HH. The worse day-old chicken quality for OH compared with HH and HF does not seem to affect first wk mortality and later life performance., (Copyright © 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Broiler chicks usually hatch in the hatchery without access to feed and water until placement at the farm. This can affect their health and welfare negatively. Therefore, alternative strategies have been developed, for instance providing chicks with early nutrition in the hatchery or hatching eggs directly on-farm. However, information on the physical and mental welfare of chicks hatched in these systems compared to conventionally hatched chicks is limited. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of alternative hatching systems on the welfare of broiler chickens in early and later life. A system comparison was performed with chickens that hatched conventionally in a hatchery (HH), in a system which provided light, feed, and water in a hatcher (hatchery-fed, HF), or on-farm (on-farm hatched, OH, where feed and water were available and transport of day-old chicks from the hatchery to the farm was not necessary). Chickens were reared in 3 batches, in 12 floor pens per batch (approximately 1,155 animals per pen), with a total of 12 replicates per treatment. Animal-based welfare indicators were assessed following standard protocols: plumage cleanliness, footpad dermatitis (FPD), hock burn, skin lesions (all at day 21 and 35 of age), and gait score (day 35). Furthermore, a set of behavioral tests was carried out: novel environment (day 1 and 21), tonic immobility, novel object, and avoidance distance test (day 4 and 35). Plumage cleanliness, hock burn, and skin lesions were affected by age but not by hatching system, with older broilers scoring worse than younger ones (P < 0.05). An effect of hatching system was only found for FPD, with the highest prevalence in HH chickens, followed by HF and OH chickens (P < 0.05). All responses measured in the behavioral tests were affected by age but not by hatching system. In later life, chickens were significantly less fearful than during the first days of life. The results indicate that conventionally hatched chickens scored significantly worse for FPD, whereas, in general, hatching system seemed to have minor effects on other broiler welfare indicators., (Copyright © 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Current pig production systems in Europe are subject to public criticism. At the same time, Precision Livestock Farming (PLF) technologies, which allow for automated animal monitoring are entering commercial pig farms. With their claim of improving animal health and welfare, these innovations may respond to public concerns. However, they may raise problems of societal acceptance themselves. In this review, we investigate whether the available literature allows for an analysis to which extent PLF can mitigate or reinforce societal concerns related to pig production. We first analyze papers on pig husbandry systems in general, and then those on PLF as an innovation in animal production. In general, there is a tension between citizens and farmers. Citizens hold rather negative attitudes whereas farmers evaluate pig production more positively. Literature on attitudes of other actors, such as veterinarians, is missing. Information on the attitudes toward PLF of stakeholders other than farmers is lacking. Possible challenges of societal acceptance of PLF and chances to overcome these are only discussed in theoretical approaches. We conclude that to analyze the role of PLF in addressing societal concerns over pig production, there is a need for further empirical research including attention to underlying values of all stakeholders. This should focus on the attitudes of the currently missing stakeholders toward pig husbandry in general, and on those of the wider society toward PLF. Only by means of additional data, it will be possible to evaluate whether PLF has the potential to address societal concerns related to pig production., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Giersberg and Meijboom.)

During automated processing in commercial hatcheries, day-old chicks are subjected to a range of possible mental and physical stressors. Three determinants of the processing line seem to have the potential to affect the birds in particular: drop height from one conveyor belt to another, conveyor belt speed, and acceleration. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of these 3 factors on chicken health and welfare in early and later life. In a first trial, chickens were tested on an experimental processing line that was adjusted to different levels of drop heights, belt speeds, and accelerations separately (n = 14 animals per factor and increment). Besides the assessment of several indicators for disorientation during the treatment, postmortem radiographic images were created and analyzed with focus on traumatic injuries. The number of chickens changing their orientation after the drop was affected by drop height (P < 0.01), whereas body posture changes were affected both by drop height (P < 0.01) and belt speed (P < 0.01). Traumatic injuries were found only sporadically and were not related to a certain treatment. In a second trial, chickens that were exposed to a combination of the 3 processing factors were compared with an untreated control group (n = 63 per group) until 15 d of age. There were no differences between the 2 groups regarding BW, welfare scores, and fear-related responses in a novel object and in a tonic immobility test. The present results suggest that the treatments on the experimental conveyor belts affected the birds' health, welfare, and behavior to a limited extend. However, starting at a drop height of 280 mm and a conveyor belt speed of 27 m/min, significantly more chickens were not able to maintain their initial body position on the belt. This indicates that there may be scope for discomfort and welfare impairment if commercial systems are operated with considerably larger drop heights and at higher speeds., (Copyright © 2020. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Background: Excessive fear in farm animals can lead to chronic stress and thus impair animal welfare. In laying hens, fear responses in several behavioural tests have also been associated with the occurrence of feather pecking. The aim of the present study was to comparatively assess fear-related responses of conventional layer hybrids (Lohmann Brown plus, LB+) and dual-purpose hens (Lohmann Dual, LD), which seem to be less prone to injurious pecking., Methods: A novel object (NO) and an avoidance distance (AD) test were carried out in both hybrids at a group level and at different ages during the laying period in order to measure their fear-related responses., Results: On most study days, more LD hens approached the NO and they approached it sooner than the LB+ hens. Similarly, the LD hens retreated at smaller distances from a human being in the AD test., Conclusion: The results indicate that dual-purpose hens act less fearful in the performed behavioural tests compared with conventional layer hybrids. Therefore, dual-purpose hens might experience less stress during daily management routines, which would affect animal welfare positively., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© British Veterinary Association 2020. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Dual-purpose strains, with hens housed for egg laying and roosters kept for meat production are one alternative to the killing of male day-old chickens. However, dual-purpose hens seem to have additional advantages compared to conventional layers, for instance, a lower tendency to develop behavioral disorders, such as feather pecking and cannibalism. In the present study, three batches of about 1850 conventional layers (Lohmann Brown plus, LB+) and 1850 dual-purpose hens (Lohmann Dual, LD) each, all of them with untrimmed beaks, were observed during production (20-71 (56) weeks of life) in a semi-commercial aviary system. The aim was to investigate whether the hybrid and batch affected the occurrence of injurious pecking, and to identify a detailed time course of the damage caused by this behavior. Therefore, the hens' plumage and skin condition were assessed as an indicator by means of a visual scoring method. The LB+ hens had higher production performances and higher mortality rates compared to the LD hens. Plumage loss in the LB+ flocks started at 23 to 25 weeks of age, and deteriorated continuously. The LD hens showed only moderate feather loss on the head/neck region, which started at 34 to 41 weeks and remained almost constant until the end of the observations. Compared to feather loss, injuries occurred in the LB+ hens with a delay of several weeks, with a maximum of 8% to 12% of hens affected. In contrast, skin injuries were observed only sporadically in single LD hens. In all batches, hybrid had an effect on the occurrence of feather loss ( p < 0.05). Within the LB+ strain, the proportions of hens affected by plumage loss and injuries differed among batches ( p < 0.05), whereas this was not the case in the LD flocks. Thus, severe feather pecking and cannibalism seemed to occur in the conventional layer hybrids but not in the dual-purpose hens, though both genetic strains were raised and managed under the same semi-commercial conditions. Therefore, keeping dual-purpose hens should also be considered as an alternative approach to avoid injurious pecking in laying hen husbandry., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflicts of interest. The funding sponsors had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.

Challenges in alternative housing for laying hens are barren functional areas such as winter gardens and the occurrence of behavioral disorders. Environmental enrichment is a measure to deal with these problems. Therefore, an enrichment device offering maize silage automatically was tested in two winter gardens on-farm. The use of the winter gardens and the times individual hens stayed there and occupied themselves with the maize silage were determined in a temporary preference test. The proportion of residing hens was significantly larger in the enriched winter garden. The mean time individual hens stayed in the enriched winter garden ranged from 02:16 ± 02:22 (mm:ss) to 03:17 ± 02:27, whereas the time ranged from 00:18 ± 00:32 to 00:59 ± 01:19 in the other winter garden ( p  < .05). Once the enrichment device ran in both winter gardens, no differences were found between the observed parameters. On average, the hens occupied themselves with the enrichment material for 03:50 ± 02:12 to 05:01 ± 03:06. Thus, based on its use and acceptance by the laying hens, the automatic device provided adequate environmental enrichment.

Roosting on elevated perches is a behavioral priority in laying hens, which is well-investigated in both experimental and commercial settings. However, little is known about perching behavior and perch requirements of alternative hybrids, such as dual-purpose hens. The aim of the present study was to gain basic knowledge on linear space requirements and perching patterns of dual-purpose hens (Lohmann Dual, LD) by comparing them to a conventional layer line (Lohmann Brown plus, LB+). About 3,700 hens per genetic strain were housed in two consecutive batches in four compartments of an aviary system with metal perches at different heights above a grid tier. As an indicator for required perching space, the body widths of a sample of individual hens was determined by image analyses. In addition, the use of five differently located perches and one cross-brace (structural element of the aviary system) was assessed by photo-based observations during the light and the dark phase. The LD hens measured an average body width of 15.95 ± 0.08 cm, and thus occupied about 7% more linear space than the LB+ hens (14.77 ± 0.08 cm body width; P < 0.05). Overall perch use was higher during the dark compared to the light phase, both in the LB+ (3.89 ± 0.08 vs. 0.79 ± 0.03 hens/m, P < 0.05) and the LD hens (2.88 ± 0.06 vs. 0.86 ± 0.03 hens/m, P < 0.05). With a maximum of 8.17 hens/m, the LB+ hens preferred to roost on the highest perches available at night. In contrast, the LD hens also rested on the lowest perches, and showed a more even use of all perches provided. During the day, the LD hens seemed to need lower perches for easy access to the feeders, whereas more LB+ hens used the higher perches, presumably to avoid threatening conspecifics. The present results show that preferences for certain perch locations differed between conventional layers and dual-purpose hens, whereas diurnal patterns of perch use were similar in both hybrids. Therefore, perches should be designed and located in an aviary system to meet the specific preferences and behavioral needs of the hybrid housed.

The assessment of plumage and integument condition in laying hens provides useful information about the occurrence of feather pecking and cannibalism. Although feather loss and skin injuries can result from mechanical abrasion or clinical diseases, they are valid animal-based indicators for behavioural disorders. This particularly applies to damage on the back and tail region of the hens. The aim was to evaluate the behaviour of dual-purpose breeds (Lohmann Dual, LD) and conventional layer hybrids (Lohmann Brown plus, LB+), and to compare a mere visual assessment (Visual S c oring, VSc), with a method involving the handling of individual animals (Hands-on S c oring, HSc). During weekly VSc, the hens' plumage and integument were scored on five body parts. HSc was carried out on seven study days applying the same scoring scale as for VSc. In LB+ hens, minor plumage damage started at 25 weeks and increased to the 71st week. With 99.5% of LB+ showing feather loss to a different extent, the back was the most severely affected body part. In contrast, only between 4.5% and 7% of LD showed minor feather loss at the end of the study. Integument damage reached a peak, with 6% affected LB+ in week 66. Injuries were found only sporadically in LD hens. Spearman's rho for the comparison of plumages scores given in VSc and HSc was >0.90 ( p < 0.01) in both hybrids for most of the tested body regions and weeks, except for the breast/belly region. However, VSc and HSc were equally valid for detecting skin injuries of all of the body regions ( r s > 0.86, p < 0.01). Damaging behaviour only occurred in the LB+ flocks, though both of the genetic strains were kept under the same conditions. The visual scoring method was suitable for detecting both plumage and integument damage., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflicts of interest. The founding sponsors had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, and in the decision to publish the results.

1. Specific legal requirements for keeping pullets are not available in the European Union. However, two of the most important rearing factors for pullets are sufficient perching and feeder space. Both factors represent horizontal space dimensions which derive from the body width of the birds. 2. The body width of two strains of layer pullets (brown (BL) and white (WL) layer pullets) based on the measurement of distances in digital images was conducted on front-view digital photographs of BL and WL pullets taken at 8, 12 and 19 weeks of life. 3. Depending on live weight, age and body position, BL pullets measured an average body width between 10.70 ± 1.10 and 13.96 ± 1.11 cm. The width of WL pullets ranged from 10.30 ± 0.86 to 13.00 ± 1.14 cm. 4. Compared with WL, BL pullets occupied more horizontal space during rearing. Age influenced the body width of BL and WL pullets at the end of rearing. The tested body positions of the pullets did not affect the measured body width. 5. The biometric data obtained in this study are a useful basis for developing legal requirements for pullets, especially for defining minimum perch width and feeder space allowances.

It is controversially discussed whether the stocking densities set by the EU Directive 2007/43/EC allow a species-appropriate housing of broiler chickens. To calculate the exact area broilers occupy due to their physical size and shape, planimetric measurements using a colour-contrast method were carried out. In total, 1949 photographs of standing and 1482 of squatting chickens, taken from a top view, were analysed. A computer program counted the pixels representing the previously weighed animal in the photograph and calculated the animal area. The average area covered by chickens with 400 g live weight was 116.64±13.12 cm(2) in a standing and 138.61±12.92 cm(2) in a squatting position. These areas increased linearly as a function of live weight to 452.57±58.89 cm(2) (R(2)=0.90 standing) and 513.54±42.70 cm(2) (R(2)=0.82 squatting) at the end of the study (3200 g live weight). Squatting chickens occupied more space compared with a standing position in most of the tested weight classes (P<0.05). Depending on target weights, stocking densities and body positions, broilers occupied 48.5-77.7 per cent of 1 m(2) Thus, from a physical point of view, simultaneous resting is possible at any stocking density provided by the EU Directive and at common target weights., (British Veterinary Association.)

Sufficient floor space is a fundamental precondition for poultry to perform normal behavioural patterns. To calculate and determine stocking densities, it is essential to know the absolute minimum surface area required by any given animal (body space). Additional space is required for characteristic behaviours (behavioural space) and for adequate inter-individual distances, group sizes and room to perform social interactions have to be taken into account. To calculate body space, planimetric measurements were carried out by the colour contrast method "KobaPlan" in various poultry species in standing and sitting positions and at a number of different ages. They included laying hens (Lohmann brown (LB), Lohmann selected Leghorn (LSL)), broiler breeders (Ross, both genders), broiler chickens (Ross 308, both genders), turkeys (BUT 6, males), Peking ducks (Cherry Valley, both genders) and Muscovy ducks (Canedins R51, males). Depending on live weight, age, plumage condition and body position, LB hens occupied an average area between 401 cm(2) and 542 cm(2), LSL hens between 353 cm(2) and 445 cm(2), broiler breeder females between 440 cm(2) and 537 cm(2), broiler breeder males 623 cm(2) up to 945 cm(2), broiler chickens up to 434 cm(2), male fattening turkeys up to 1808 cm(2), Muscovy drakes up to 873 cm(2) and Peking ducks up to 627 cm(2). The values can be regarded as necessary minimum spatial requirements for the measured poultry species and genotype. The current method offers the potential to record the area occupied by animals exhibiting species-specific behavioural patterns.