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In the last 15 years literature on bullying has emphasized the role of systemic processes in aggressive interactions, as well as the interplay of cognitive and emotional mechanisms leading to antisocial behaviors. Indeed, as adolescents interact with a varied social world, their development entails the formation of different but systematic types or domains of social reasoning. Social situations require a balancing and coordination of different social, individual and moral considerations related to features of the context. In this chapter, we suggest a broader view of moral reasoning trough the investigation of individual, culturally influenced, life values. In our non-representative sample of 801 Italian students the prevalence of school bullying was around 75% and the most common type was direct, either verbal (offending, teasing, threating) or physical (aggression). Participating roles collapsed into uninvolved (neutral) bystanders (56.8%), victims (37.1%) and bully | bully victims (6.1%). Our results evidenced how moral reasoning interact with other variables such as cognitive processes and distortions, moral emotions and cultural characteristics in bullying and evidenced, in addition to a general individualistic tendency, that some values specifically pertaining to adolescent bullies, like personal success, richness, and ambition. These values become more evident when supported by expectations of positive outcomes from the bullying behavior expressed by the peers' group (Brighi, et al., 2007). Bullies’ self-assertion tendencies appeared even stronger in female than in males as evidenced by little consideration for others' needs and desires, low respect of societal norms and little importance attributed to honesty. Only by taking into consideration the interplay between personal goals, life and cultural values a fuller theoretical understanding of peer aggression can be reached. Integrative models are thus needed to investigate both moral cognition and moral affect in children in relation to their participant roles in different form of bullying (Arsenio & Lemerise, 2004; Malti & Latzko, 2010).

Purpose In this study, we aimed at examining the unique and interactive effects of peer violence in cyberspace on adolescents’ emotion regulation and socioemotional adjustment, as well as the mediational role of resilience in the link between adolescent’s pathogenic relational experiences and behavioral outcomes. Specifically, we intended to explore emotion differentiation and regulation in reaction to bullying perpetration and victimization and in terms of positive (proud, confident, good) and negative (ashamed, excited, guilty), Passive (sad, embarrassed, humiliated) and Reactive (angry, scared) emotions and how it impacted and predicted positive and negative outcomes. Methodology/approach A stratified convenient sample of 494 Italian students aged 13–19 years (M = 15.27, SD = 1.23) was selected to represent all different school types in Italy and the students were administered a self-report questionnaire on school bullying involvement. General Linear Models, ANOVA, and T-tests were employed to explore gender differences, the relationships between variables, and their contribution to the predictive model. A two-step Cluster analysis was used to profile adolescents based on patterns of resilience, health outcomes, and cyberbullying involvement. Findings Results showed significant gender differences, with females using internet and Facebook more than males and being more resilient, positive, and prosocial, but also responding to victimization with higher levels of alienation, anger, humiliation, and psychosomatic and emotional symptoms. Males perpetrated peer violence more than females, were less likely to be victimized, and were generally less emotionally impacted by it. Victimization rates (63.7%, n = 296) were higher than perpetration rates (51.7%, n = 233) and bully-victimization was prevalent (47.1%). Victims prevalently experienced passive emotions (sadness, humiliation, embarrassment) while perpetrators experienced negative ones (guilt and shame). Cluster analysis evidenced different pathways and trajectories of resilience and cyberbullying involvement: Resilient victims (RV), Healthy uninvolved (HU), Healthy Bullies (HB), Alienated Bully-Victims (ABV), and Resilient Bully-Victims (RBV). RV, HU, and HB resulted all well-adjusted, despite the different involvement in cyberbullying, and also RBV and despite the double involvement in cyberbullying, ABV were the only maladjusted and at-risk group in our sample characterized by very low Positivity, very low Resilience, and extremely high Alienation. Research implications This study proposes a comprehensive, developmental, ecological, relational, and self-regulatory resilience approach to cyberbullying, which represents an innovative and advanced contribution to the literature with significant implication for research and practice. Fully understanding and measuring the emotional impact of cyber peer violence and resilience following cyberbullying victimization and perpetration can help in developing targeted interventions for both victims and bullies. This study highlighted the need for a self-regulatory model of resilience for modulating emotions, arousal, and behaviors across contexts, relationships, and difficulties. It also evidenced that moderate levels of resilience and positivity are sufficient to buffer youth from involvement in cyberbullying and to predict healthy adjustment and less pathological outcomes. Originality/value By profiling adolescents based on resilience levels, health outcomes, and cyberbullying involvement, we evidenced five distinct trajectories of risk evaluation for cyberbullying beyond participating roles. Our results confirmed the fundamental importance of assessing resilience and emotion regulatory resources together with peer violence involvement in identifying and targeting adolescents at risk.