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The available scenarios of multi-pollutants trends in Europe indicate a shift in modern urban atmospheres from and SO2 dominated situation to a multi-pollutant situation, linked to the driven role played by traffic in determining the overall pollution in urban centres. In view of the proven overwhelming influence of mobile combustion sources in determining the future urban atmosphere, “modern’’ soiling on built heritage will be likely to contain primarily organic carbon (OC). This will imply a change in composition of damage layers, which will presumably assume a yellow-brown coloration. The EC TeACH project (Technologies and tools to prioritize assessment and diagnosis of air pollution impact on immovable and movable cultural heritage) sets out to understand the different types of damage on cultural heritage that can be expected in the future, due to changes in pollutants, both in terms of typology and concentration. To accomplish this goal, from the technological point of view the project aims to develop a non invasive device for the continuous monitoring of the damage caused on monuments located outdoor by changing pollution impact, based on the change of colour of the architectural surface. A prototype is currently under testing at 5 monuments located in urban sites in Europe and one in the Mediterranean area, characterized by different environmental and climate conditions: Cologne Cathedral (Germany), S. Maria del Fiore Cathedral in Florence (Italy), the National Gallery in Oslo (Norway), the Arriaga Theatre in Bilbao (Spain), the National Museum in Cracow (Poland), the historic walls of Salè (Morocco). Colorimetric analyses directly at the building surface for blackening/colour change characterisation using a portable spectrophotometer. Results achieved within this still running project on the composition of damage layers will be presented and discussed. Elaboration of carbon fractions data will be liked in particular to colorimetric parameters (L*a*b*), with the aim of exploring the application of monitoring of color change of architectural surfaces as potential strategy for preventive conservation.

In order to asses the environmental impact on the Baptistery, situated in the urban centre of Florence, a continuous monitoring of physical, chemical and biological agents was performed. The intent is to study the alteration produced by the action of atmospheric contaminants on works of art, acquire data on their state of conservation and draw up a risk map relating to chemical pollutants.

Per una nazione come l'Italia, che possiede gran parte delle opere d'arte mondiali, la conservazione e la salvaguardia dei beni culturali costituisce un obiettivo di primaria importanza. In quest'ottica si colloca lo studio dell'impatto ambientale sul Battistero di Firenze, situato nel centro urbano della città, realizzato attraverso il campionamento dell'aerosol atmosferico presso due delle tre porte dell'edificio, ovvero Porta Nord, esposta direttamente al traffico veicolare, e Porta Sud, influenzata indirettamente dalle emissioni veicolari. Allo scopo di confrontare la composizione del particolato atmosferico in prossimità delle due porte con quella della zona circostante, un terzo campionamento è stato effettuato sul tetto del Museo dell'Opera del Duomo, sito considerato come background dell'area. Del particolato totale sospeso sono stati misurati la concentrazione in massa in atmosfera, la componente ionica solubile e il carbonio non carbonatico. I risultati ottenuti indicano nei processi di combustione le principali sorgenti di particolato atmosferico nel centro di Firenze. Presso la Porta Nord del Battistero, le emissioni da traffico veicolare contribuiscono in modo rilevante alle concentrazioni degli inquinanti misurati. Inoltre, lo studio dimostra che, anche all'aperto, il flusso di visitatori incrementa la quantità d'aerosol atmosferico, influenzandone la composizione. Ogni monumento situato all'aperto è quindi esposto agli agenti inquinanti caratteristici della zona in cui è ubicato e solo un ampio monitoraggio locale può fornire i dati necessari per individuare strategie idonee alla protezione e conservazione del patrimonio culturale.

The effects of air pollution on monuments and historical buildings have been studied over the last decades. The burning of fossil fuels produces gases, smoke and particulate carbonaceous matter that deposit on building surfaces and react with the underlying calcareous materials to form a damage layer. Carbonaceous particles have a catalytic effect on CaSO4•2H2O formation and the ensuing surface blackening on building exteriors. Considering the trends of major air pollutants, e.g. SO2, NOx and particulate, the increase in particle concentrations in urban area is threatening and will threaten the protection of cultural heritage in the future. For this reason, particular attention has been focused in recent years on the impact of carbonaceous particles on surfaces of artistic interest, with the aim of assessing their contribution in terms of carbon quantification. Venice is presented as case of study and, in particular, the Corner Palace on the Canal Grande. The carbon fractions were discriminated and measured following a chemical-thermal methodology specifically developed for damage layer specimens. The resulting data show that the evaluation of pollution impact requires the quantification of the carbonaceous particles which are responsible of black crust formation and, particularly, elemental carbon, as tracer of anthropogenic deposition.

The combustion of crude oil produces a wide range of pollutants, including gases, volatile organic compounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, acid compounds (e.g., sulfuric acid), and soot. Several of these pollutants have been linked with the deterioration and blackening of monuments. The paper reports the results of an investigation on the causes of the soiling of cultural remains at important archaeological sites in the provinces of Khuzestan and Fars, in southern Iran, assumed to be an effect of the Persian Gulf oil well fires of 1991. Different analytical techniques were applied to characterize the mineralogical composition of the damage layers, investigate the deposition of atmospheric particles, measure the anion concentrations, and identify and quantify the carbon components. The results showed that the black deposits on the surfaces of the Iranian monuments considered are mainly microbiotic crusts produced by cyanobacterial growth. No evidence was found of the deposition of particulate matter (smoke) produced by the Kuwait oil fires during the Gulf War.

L'origine del materiale organico normalmente riscontrato sulla superficie di monumenti ed edifici storici e archeologici in marmo e calcare è di complessa individuazione. Diversi possono essere infatti i fattori che contribuiscono alla sua presenza: prodotti di degrado biologico, alterazione di trattamenti protettivi applicati in passato e deposizione atmosferica. Tra i composti organici, anioni a corta catena carboniosa quali acetati, formiati ed ossalati, vengono costantemente identificati unitamente agli anioni traccianti tipici di inquinamento atmosferico, in concentrazioni non trascurabili, mediante analisi in cromatografia ionica, nelle croste nere campionate su monumenti ed edifici situati in aree urbane o industrializzate. Whewellite e weddellite, ossalati di calcio monoidrato e biidrato rispettivamente, sono stati frequentemente riscontrati, attraverso analisi in microscopia ottica polarizzata su sezioni sottili, microscopia elettronica a scansione e diffrattometria a raggi x, sotto forma di sottili strati superficiali su monumenti ed oggetti in marmo e calcare localizzati in diverse aree geografiche ed appartenenti a vari periodi storici. In questo lavoro verranno sintetizzati i risultati sino ad ora ottenuti e le ipotesi di lavoro sviluppate per l'applicazione di nuove metodologie analitiche al fine di colmare le lacune attualmente esistenti in letteratura riguardo questa problematica di grande rilevanza per la ricerca applicata ai beni culturali.

A high-performance liquid chromatographic method for the determination in human plasma of the recent noradrenergic and specific serotonergic antidepressant (NaSSA) mirtazapine and its two main metabolites, N-desmethylmirtazapine and 8-hydroxymirtazapine, has been developed. Fluorescence detection was used, exciting at 290 nm and monitoring emission at 370 nm. Separation was obtained by using a reversed phase column (C8, 250 mm×4.6 mm I.D., 5 um) and a mobile phase composed of 75% aqueous phosphate buffer containing triethylamine at pH 3.0 and 25% acetonitrile. Melatonin was used as the internal standard. A careful pre-treatment of plasma samples was developed, using solid-phase extraction with phenyl cartridges (100 mg, 1 mL). The calibration curves were linear over a working range of 5–150 ng/mL for mirtazapine and of 2.5–75.0 ng/mL for N-desmethylmirtazapine and 8-hydroxymirtazapine. The limit of quantitation (LOQ) was 2.5 ng/mL and the limit of detection (LOD) was 1.25 ng/mL for all analytes. The method was applied with success to plasma samples from depressed patients undergoing treatment with mirtazapine. Precision data, as well as accuracy results, were satisfactory and no interference from other drugs was found. Hence the method is suitable for therapeutic drug monitoring of mirtazapine and its metabolites in depressed patients’ plasma.

The availability of a correct, accurate and reproducible analytical method for a complete carbon balance in black crusts is of major importance in understand the effects of the interaction between atmospheric pollutants and the environment, particularly in the portioning of pollutant sources, damage mechanism identification, and a sustainable protection of cultural heritage. The EC Project CARAMEL has, among its primary goal, the setting up of a suitable and reliable analytic technique able to distinguish and measure carbon fractions in damage layers, particularly elemental carbon. The presence of a significant amount of carbonate carbon and the removal of organic carbon are critical steps in the measurement of carbon compounds in black crusts. A chemical-thermal methodology for carbon analyses in black crusts was set up whose specificity, accuracy and precision were tested on appropriate standard samples. The results obtained indicate that the methodology satisfactorily distinguishes among carbon species an allows a reliable evaluation of their quantities in damage layers.

Damage layer formation on buildings is due to the deposition of atmospheric pollutants and their interaction with the underlying materials. The composition of black crusts is therefore closely related to the characteristics and levels of pollution in the surrounding environment. Thus, the study of its constituents is of fundamental importance in planning strategies for the protection and conservation of monuments and historic buildings. Damage layers have been shown to be primarily composed of carbonaceous particles embedded in gypsum, pointing to the overwhelming role of combustion-derived air pollution in their formation. The identification and evaluation of elemental carbon and other carbon species constituting the non-carbonate fraction of total carbon is required in investigating the damage on historic buildings in urban areas. The removal of organic carbon is a critical step in the analytical methodologies used for the measurement of elemental carbon. The paper describes a study performed on black crust samples from historic buildings of two Italian towns, on which the carbon compound discrimination was achieved by applying an analytical methodology based on thermal analysis.

The present paper focuses on the results obtained from the investigation on the soiling affecting surface monuments and relie fs of important Iranian archaeological sites. For this purpose, samples of surface deposit and damage layers were collected on immovable cultural relics located in the provinces of Khuzestan and Fars, in Southern Iran. Different analytical techniques were applied with the aim of characterising the mineralogical composition of the damage layers, investigating the embedded atmospheric particles, measuring the soluble salt concentration, identifying and quantifying the carbon components present. The results obtained will be presented, paying particular attention to the carbon fractions not linked to the carbonate substrate, but originated by biological agents and anthropogenic activities. The quantitave data of non carbonate carbon, comprising both elemental and organic fractions, obtained through the application of the methodology set up during the CARAMEL EC Project, as well as the organic composition of the soiling deposits (investigated by thermally assisted hydrolysis and methylation and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry) will be illustrated and discussed., The authors gratefully acknowledge the researches of the Research Center for Conservation of Cultural Relics (RCCCR) of Teheran for the support and collaboration during the sampling campaigns.