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The purpose of this paper is to engender a healthy respect for Gestalt theory and techniques and the use of the techniques in the client's best interest and in the interest of positive professional and self-development in the practitioner. An overview of Gestalt techniques is provided, concentrating on the two category divisions of experiments and exercises. This paper focuses on clinical rather than non-clinical settings, in which there is a responsibility to engage in ethically sound strategies with clients. The discussion continues with an overview of the importance of ethical guidelines for licensed practitioners and the relative merits of credentialling, training, and expertise when preparing to engage in such techniques as those associated with Gestalt theory. Examples of experiments are provided which help illustrate the dilemma of the ethical issues involved in the implementing of Gestalt techniques. The paper concludes with a discussion of concerns expressed by experts, including inappropriate use of Gestalt techniques and inappropriate selection of clients, misuse and abuse of techniques, and the professional's personal sense of ethical behavior. (Contains seven references.) (GCP)

This paper calls attention to parallels in the literature of adventure education and that of Gestalt therapy, demonstrating that both are rooted in an experiential tradition. The philosophies of adventure or experiential education and Gestalt therapy have the following areas in common: (1) emphasis on personal growth and the development of present potentials; (2) promoting growth through creation of disequilibrium and tension; (3) "challenge" in adventure education versus the "creative experiment" in Gestalt; (4) the impact on the learning or therapeutic process by experiences "at the edge"; (5) characteristics of process and flow (nonpredictability of experience, need for spontaneity and flexibility); (6) focus on the present and concrete examples; (7) holistic approach to learning or therapy; (8) Gestalt belief in self-organizing systems versus the educational concept of constructivism; (9) transparent goals and limits; (10) focus on internal control, self-evaluation, and self-responsibility; and (11) confrontational approach to therapy or experiential group work. Gestalt concepts may inspire the theory and practice of adventure education by making practitioners more aware of what they are doing, and may be even more valuable for the new field of adventure therapy. (Contains 42 references.) (SV)

The book "Productive Thinking", by Gestalt psychologist Max Wertheimer, was published over 50 years ago, yet it continues to wield influence. The book's argument on productive thinking, and why it is still relevant today, are the focus of this paper. Productive thinking involves going from a situation of bewilderment or confusion about some issue to a new state in which everything about the issue is clear. The process involves a kind of reorganization, and marks a transition from a state that is meaningless to one that is meaningful. Aural and visual examples of productive thinking are presented, along with word games and the importance of problem reformulation. A number of logic problems are presented and the possibility of their solution is explored. Many scholarly reactions to the book's theme are presented in detail, and some of the research that has been initiated by productive thinking is explained. The ascendance of computer-based, information processing as a paradigm for cognitive psychology is discussed, as well as its application to productive thinking. Contains 50 references. (RJM)

This study evaluated the effects of Integrative Gestalt Therapy on the intellectual aspects of social competence in 13 children, ages 7 to 11, living in Zagreb, Croatia. These children had intellectual disabilities (IQ 54 to 84) as well as psychological and/or behavior problems. Integrative Gestalt Therapy emphasizes the wholeness of a person's body, intellect, and soul in the social and ecological environment in which the individual is embedded. Subjects were given the American Association of Mental Deficiency (AAMD) Adaptive Behavior Scale (Part I), which measures acquisition of daily life skills and habits in 10 areas. The AAMD Scale was translated into Croatian, adapted, and standardized. Subjects received weekly 90-minute sessions for one school-year of integrative group therapy, which had the basic aim of encouraging the process of maturation. Results indicated that children receiving the therapy program made significant progress in the intellectual aspects of social intelligence when compared with the normative sample. (Contains 21 references.) (DB)

Analyzed two Gestalt therapy sessions conducted by Fritz Perls using category system for identifying in-session client behaviors valued by Gestalt therapists. Four judges independently rated 210 client statements. Found common pattern of therapeutic movement: initial phase dominated by building block good moments and second phase characterized by combinations of good moments. (Author/NB)

An on-going theoretical issue for pastoral counseling concerns the integration of psychological and theological concepts. The possibility of exploring the compatibility of Gestalt psychotherapy and feminist theology is considered with reference to the 'practical-values' of each, and it is proposed that there is significant common ground between these values. (Contains 20 references.) (GCP)

Takes a transtheoretical approach using ideas from cognitive behavioral, existential, Gestalt, psychodynamic, and multicultural therapies to describe both new and established strategies for relationships building with defiant youth. Arranges strategies in three categories: reaching, accepting, and relating. Suggestions for counselors when working with these youth include using a variety of modalities and working with whatever resources you can. (Author/JDM)

While General Systems Theory (GST) concepts appear to be applicable in explaining some of the phenomena that occur in a Gestalt Therapy group, research is needed to support this assumption. General Systems Theory may not be a group theory per se. Instead, GST may be a theory about groups. A meta-theory exists where its value and usefulness is found in the theory's ability for describing phenomena common to all group theories. Nevertheless, GST certainly acknowledges: (1) the individual as a multi-system person; (2) the therapist as the most important person in the group; (3) the emotional-cognitive process as a system; (4) the importance of the boundary concept; (5) that the importance of the boundary functions, systeming and summing, and that emotional exchanges are not long lasting; (5) there are various levels for intervention within a group, including intrapsychic, interpersonal, and group, and intervention can occur at any level; and (6) the unique advantages of the therapist "thinking systems" with the focus on process instead of content thinking. The interactions within a therapeutic group and attempts to transpose one theory to another are complex; General Systems Theory thinking is new and highly complex. (ABL)

Reviews ethical and practical dilemmas associated with clients who have hidden alcohol dependencies, and proposes an approach rooted in Gestalt counseling theory which confronts these issues and is compatible with a current emerging alcohol-treatment model. Suggests specific activities for addressing client resistance to revealing a hidden alcohol dependence and provides the rational for each. (Author/MKA)

An intensive analysis of a single counseling session conducted by Fritz Perls was carried out to examine relationships among client experiencing level, client strength of feeling, counselor interventions, and client good moments. The possibility that positive therapeutic outcome is related to the accretion of good moments is discussed. (JBJ)

Reviews various systems of psychotherapy for suitability for suicidal clients. Discusses psychoanalysis, cognitive therapy, primal therapy, transactional analysis, Gestalt therapy, reality therapy, person-centered therapy, existential analysis, and Jungian analysis in light of available treatment options. Includes 36 citations. (Author/CRR)

Focuses on a group of children with moderate learning difficulties who exhibited a lack of interest or enjoyment in drawing. Attributes this to a developmental lag in the use of specific forms and drawing skills. Concludes that nonspecialist teachers could benefit from a greater awareness of developmental stages. (MJP)

The Gestalt dream approach is a practical way to explore personal issues. This article demonstrates how dream work can be adapted by counselors to focus clients to direct forms of personal exploration. A four-step strategy is described. (Authors)

The number of adjudicated delinquents is rising along with the need to develop effective deterrents and rehabilitative programs. Most rehabilitative efforts, when evaluated individually, do not show any significant degree of effectiveness or appreciable decrease in recidivism. Research in other fields suggests that delinquency is a group phenomenon. This study was conducted to examine existing treatment programs for juvenile offenders to determine if recidivism rates were related to differences in counseling theory and methods. The sample consisted of 728 juveniles assigned to three different non-residential programs in southern Arizona. Program A (N=305) was eclectic in its basic counseling theory; program B (N=365) placed emphasis on Gestalt theory; and program C (N=58) stressed Adlerian theory, placing added importance on peer-group techniques. Data were obtained from county juvenile court records and from program personnel. There were no significant differences found between males and females for any program, and no significant ethnic differences were found. For all programs, effectiveness increased for graduates of the program. Compared to programs A and B, program C with its Adlerian theory base was found to be significantly more effective in controlling recidivism while the juveniles were undergoing counseling and through 18 months after release. Graduates of program C spent relatively less time in counseling than did graduates of programs A or B. (Author/NB)

It has been estimated that 85% of all women seeking therapy are adults molested as children (AMACs). Group counseling with AMACs is recommended, with groups having homogeneity in terms of presenting problems and heterogeneity in group members' ability to deal with their sexual abuse. Groups should be closed, meet once or twice a week for 2-hour sessions, have 6-8 members, and continue for at least 6 months. A three-stage model for group counseling with AMACs has been developed. Stage 1 goals are to establish a trusting and safe environment and a common bond among group members, and to get group members past the denial stage to admit that they were victims of sexual abuse and that the abuse has affected them. Stage 2 goals involve dealing with group members' feelings of rage, guilt, shame, and fear that emerge after denial is overcome. Gestalt Therapy seems to be the most effective treatment for this stage. Stage 3 goals involve helping group members to rebuild trust in themselves and others by correcting their distorted thinking and by teaching them coping skills for daily living. Cognitive-behavioral methods and assertiveness training seem appropriate at this stage. If treatment goals are met, group members will be able to accept themselves and their feelings and can begin to enjoy their lives. (NB)

This paper examines possible applications of confluent education to the foreign language classroom. The confluent approach creates an opportunity for integration of intrapersonal, interpersonal, and extrapersonal components in the process of learning. Confluent curriculum has been designed in three broad goal categories: to achieve traditional subject matter goals, to achieve nontraditional goals of personal and interpersonal or social development, and to learn process skills that will help students attain their own goals. Each of these requires a separate and distinct usage of confluent learning experiences. The elements promoted in confluent education include responsibility, convergency, divergency, evaluation, connectedness, identity, power, context, and Gestalt. Gestalt theory has provided much of the rationale for confluent education. Activities including emotions are emphasized in the classroom, and are easy to provide by modifying existing exercises and activities and by drawing on student experiences or concerns. Confluent education can be used to ameliorate a variety of educational problems, creating changes in teacher behavior, in relationships between teachers and students, and in specific learning opportunities in the curriculum. (MSE)

This paper notes recent evidence suggesting that couples characterized by violent interactions respond best to therapy when seen first in individual therapy sessions. Clinicians are then presented with a Gestalt therapy approach to intervening in cases of intimate violence that goes beyond crisis intervention. The focus is on the female's roles in intimate violence as supported in the related literature. Gestalt therapy theory and techniques are applied to the literature on females involved in intimate violence and illustrations are presented. Gestalt therapy is defined and several goals of Gestalt therapy are explained, including: (1) acceptance of reality; (2) increased awareness; (3) integration of opposites; (4) responsibility; (5) maturity; (6) authenticity; (7) self regulation; and (8) behavior change. Suggestions for couple's therapy are provided. References are included. (NB)