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Analogue sample including high scorers on Borderline Personality traits randomized to Best Possible Self or control exercise. fEMG used to measure activity of zygomaticus major and corrugator at baseline and during the visualisation period. High, medium and low arousal positive affect measured with the Affect Valuation Index. Depressive symptoms measured as alternative explanatory construct that might explain differential reactivity better than Borderline traits. We expect that the effects of the Best Possible Self exercise will be moderated by borderline traits and depressive symptoms. After the Best Possible Self exercise compared to baseline, participants with higher borderline traits and/or depressive symptoms will experience a higher increase in low arousal positive affect but a dampened increase in high and medium arousal positive affect and zygomaticus activity, relative to participants with lower traits / symptoms. Negative affect is a secondary outcome measure. We expect that participants with higher borderline traits and/or depressive symptoms will have increased reduction of negative affect (high, medium, and low arousal negative affect), and increased reduction of corrugator activity. Design: 2(intervention: Best Possible Self vs. Control exercise) x 2(time: pre vs. post) x continuous variable (Borderline personality traits / depressive symptoms) Dependent variable: difference scores (post-pre) of High Arousal Positive Affect, Medium Arousal Positive Affect, Low Arousal Positive Affect, and Zygomaticus Major (Secondary variables difference scores high, medium and low arousal negative affect, corrugator) Independent variables: intervention, Borderline Personality traits, Depressive Symptoms, interactions of intervention with borderline traits and intervention with depressive symptoms. Analysis: regression analyses, first seperately for Borderline traits by intervention (plus main effects borderline traits and intervention). Second, we will add depressive symptoms by intervention and main effect of depression to this model. We expect that the interaction of borderline traits with intervention is initially significant but will disappear when the interaction of depressive symptoms with intervention is added. The interaction between intervention and depressive symptoms will mediate the effect of the interaction between intervention and borderline traits on reactivity, and depressive symptoms will mediate the main effect of borderline traits on reactivity. This mediation means that borderline traits will predict depressive symptoms. See file '2019_05 image hypothesis mediation'for a visual illustration. To test 2 out of 5 parameters in particular, namely the interaction between Borderline traits by intervention and of depressive symptoms by intervention with 80% power to detect a medium-to-small effect, we will need at least 100 valid N (medium effect is f2=.15, small effect is f2=.02): F tests - Linear multiple regression: Fixed model, R² increase Analysis: A priori: Compute required sample size Input: Effect size f² = 0.10 α err prob = 0.05 Power (1-β err prob) = 0.80 Number of tested predictors = 2 Total number of predictors = 5 Output: Noncentrality parameter λ = 10.0000000 Critical F = 3.0932659 Numerator df = 2 Denominator df = 94 Total sample size = 100 Actual power = 0.8021676 We will test at least 110 participants in order to make sure we have 100 valid cases (for the fEMG data sometimes data not useable). If possible, we will test more. Other secondary hypotheses: - High and medium arousal positive affect will correlate more with zygomaticus major acitivty than low arousal positive affect - More high and medium arousal positive affect increase (across conditions) corresponds to more zygomaticus major increase. - High, medium and low arousal positive affect has also been measured at 3 extra time points (at 3, 6, and 9 minutes after end of intervention. In between measurements, participants played tetris to keep them busy). We expect that differences found for pre-post difference score will also hold for the area-under-the-curve index calculated for the entire period (the differences between post, 3, 6 and 9 minutes minus the baseline, all added up). If this is not the case, it could be that playing tetris interfered with the Best Possible Self image. (A colleague has alerted us to the literature on the dampening effects of visual distraction such as tetris on intrusive memories).

Individuals with clinical depression report alterations in experience of positive affect over time, referred to as disturbed positive affective dynamics. Patterns of positive affective disturbance in depression over time have been extensively investigated using experience sampling methodologies (ESM; for example, see Trull et al., 2015). However, which underlying patterns of emotion regulation drive these changes is relatively poorly understood. Emotion regulation strategies are automatic or effortful processes that are used in order to “influence which emotions one has, when one has them, and how one experiences or expresses these emotions” (Gross, 2015, p.5). Clinical depression has been linked to altered use in a variety of different forms of positive affect regulation (e.g. Dunn, 2019), which in turn are associated with altered reactivity to positive mood inductions in the laboratory and altered baseline mood levels of positive affect. A logical next step is to examine whether altered use of these various strategies drive altered temporal dynamics of positive affective experience. Moreover, clinical depression is also linked to robust deficits in the broader construct of wellbeing (a combination of positive mood, meaning/purpose, and social connection; Westerhof & Keyes, 2009). It is important to examine to what degree particular emotion regulation strategies are uniquely related to positive affect or also impact on broader wellbeing. Finally, it is argued that positive affect is partly orthogonal to negative affect (Watson, Clark & Tellegen, 1988), meaning that it is possible that different emotion regulation strategies impact differently on positive versus negative affective experience. This possibility has not been extensively investigated. To explore these questions, the present study is a secondary analysis of ESM data collected as part of the intake procedure belonging to a randomised clinical trial of a novel depression therapy called Augmented Depression Therapy versus Cognitive Behavioural Therapy for treatment of current major depressive disorder (ADepT trial; Dunn et al., 2019; clinical trial reference number ISCRTN85278228). The ESM assessment examined daily fluctuations in positive affect, negative affect, wellbeing, and use of a variety of candidate emotion regulation strategies (i.e. attentional processing bias, reduced bodily and sensory experiential processing, diminished self-kindness, mind wandering, avoidance, and rumination). We will examine whether use of each strategy concurrently and prospectively predicts PA, NA and wellbeing experience (and whether each strategy predicts over and above each other).

Experimental study examining the impact of positive affect / optimism on extinction of pain-related fear.

The present study explores the influence of psychopathy – as well as its three subcomponents - on the efficacy of experimentally induced self- and other-compassion.

Exposure to traumatic events leads to a clinically significant number of people developing symptoms, including those of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and Acute Stress Disorder (James et al., 2016). One of the techniques used to treat trauma-induced symptoms is Imagery Rescripting (IR). The main goal of IR is to alter negative meanings associated with distressing autobiographical memories (Arntz, 2012). Changing intrusive mental images through IR is increasingly recognized as a helpful therapeutic technique (Morina et al, 2017). The degree to which positive emotions are used during IR varies between clinicians and protocols. From a theoretical perspective, the Broaden-and-Build theory suggests that positive emotions could have an additive effect within IR. That is to say, they broaden awareness and encourage novel, varied and exploratory thoughts and actions (Fredrickson, 2004), thereby building durable biopsychosocial resources that support coping and improve mental health (Garland, et al., 2010). Based on this Broaden-and-Build theory, the implementation of positive emotions thus could have a positive effect on the treatment results of IR. The aim of this study is to experimentally investigate the value of explicitly stimulating positive emotions during IR. We will use a negative film in order to elicit negative emotions and intrusions. For ethical reasons, we will only recruit participants who indicate that they have no current psychopathological diagnosis. Additionally, upon arrival on the first appointment, we enquire about potential recent traumatic experiences with ongoing negative effects and those who have recently experienced a traumatic event will be excluded. The research question is whether adding an explicit positive emotion component to IR leads to improved effects in terms of affect and intrusions (affect: higher positive affect, reduced negative affect; intrusions: reduced frequency and reduced intensity) compared to the standard IR procedure. The study design comprises three conditions: Condition 1: IR followed by positive emotion component Condition 2: IR followed by placebo intervention Condition 3: No intervention

Imagery rescripting (ImRs) is a therapeutic technique aiming to reduce the emotional distress caused by past episodic memories (Holmes et al., 2007; Mancini & Mancini, 2018). Moreover, by giving the episodic memory a more positive meaning, the believability of the negative, memory-driven encapsulated belief may be reduced (Mancini & Mancini, 2018). ImRs has been shown effective in treating various psychiatric disorders, either as stand-alone treatment or in combination with other treatments (Morina et al., 2017). Despite its effectiveness, the working mechanisms of ImRs remain up to debate (Mancini & Mancini, 2018; Morina et al., 2017; Stopa & Jenkins, 2007). Current studies specifically focus on symptom reduction in general, or on changes in memory characteristics of the target memory (Morina et al., 2017). Yet, the target memory functions in a network of related memories. To our knowledge, no study has investigated the effect of ImRs on related network memories. The present study aims to fill this gap and by that to give new insights on the memory-based working mechanisms and effectiveness of ImRs. Current theories on episodic memories stress the notion of memory networks that are based on shared features, such as a specific emotion (Philippe et al., 2009). According to the spreading activation theory, once an episodic memory is re-activated this activation spreads to related memories in the network, the activation being stronger when memories are more related (Philippe et al., 2009; Philippe et al., 2012). Consequently, changes in the characteristics of the target memory after a session of ImRs may spread to related episodic memories, thus causing a change in memory characteristics of the related memories. Relatedness of memories may therefore act as a moderator of change in memory characteristics of the network memories. However, as an alternative hypothesis, changes induced by ImRs in the target memory might cause the target memory to lose its links with previously related memories, as links between memories are based on similarity in characteristics, and hence limits the spreading activation effect. This may have implications for treatment: either just one central episodic memory needs to be addressed, or several memories in the emotional network need processing.

Imagery rescripting (ImRs) is a therapy technique that has been applied to update aversive memories that are considered important in the development of a psychiatric disorders. It consists of recalling and changing the course of aversive event into a more desirable one (Arntz, 2012). Morina and colleagues (2017) evidenced in their meta-analyses that ImRs is helpful for a range of disorders, from post-traumatic stress disorder, depression to social anxiety disorder. In addition to past-related events, patients with anxiety disorders also experience 'flashforwards' which consist of a catastrophic scenario happening in the future. Engelhard et al. (2012) suggested the importance of changing the content of such future scenarios. This study will explore whether ImRs focused on these catastrophic future-oriented scenarios are an effective treatment procedure for anxiety disorders. The present study is focused on one of the anxiety disorders, social anxiety disorders with the specifier performance anxiety. We will investigate whether flashforward ImRs is effective or even more effective than the original ImRs focused on memories (memory ImRs) in reducing anxiety symptoms. For this purpose we randomize people high on performance anxiety over one session of either flashforward ImRs, memory ImRs or therapist-attention placebo (PLA). Pre and post treatment performance anxiety symptoms (anticipatory anxiety and avoidance of an upcoming speech, and idiosyncratic negative beliefs related to the speech) and imagery quality (i.e., emotionality, vividness and believability of the related belief) of the flashforward and memory are assessed. To describe our sample, pre-treatment levels of social anxiety, depression and imagery ability of our participants is assessed.

Positive CBT integrates positive psychology and solution-focused brief therapy within a cognitive-behavioral framework. It focuses not on reducing what is wrong, but on building what is right. This fourth wave of CBT, developed by Fredrike Bannink, is now being applied worldwide for various psychological disorders. After an introductory chapter exploring the three approaches incorporated in positive CBT, the research into the individual treatment protocol for use with clients with depression by Nicole Geschwind and her colleagues at Maastricht University is presented. The two 8-session treatment protocols provide practitioners with a step-by-step guide on how to apply positive CBT with individual clients and groups. This approach goes beyond simply symptom reduction and instead focuses on the client’s desired future, on finding exceptions to problems and identifying competencies. Topics such as self-compassion, optimism, gratitude, and behavior maintenance are explored. In addition to the protocols, two workbooks for clients are available online for download by practitioners. The materials for this book can be downloaded from the Hogrefe website after registration.

Background: Previous research suggests a relationship between measurement frequency of self-reported depressive symptoms and change in depressive symptom scores for the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II). The goal of the current study was to investigate the differential effects of weekly and monthly completion of the BDI-II and Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology self-report (QIDS-SR). Methods: Seventy individuals diagnosed with major depressive disorder (MDD) waiting for treatment were randomly assigned to either completing BDI-II weekly, BDI-II monthly, QIDS-SR weekly, or QIDS-SR monthly for a duration of nine weeks. After nine weeks participants also completed the Zung depression scale once. Mixed multilevel regression modelling and Bayesian Statistical Analysis were used to test the relationship between the measurement frequency and depression scores, and to compare scores of the repeatedly completed instruments with the instrument completed only in week nine. Results: Measurement frequency was not related to BDI-II, QIDS-SR or Zung scores. However, depression scores declined in the weekly and monthly QIDS-SR (but not BDI-II) conditions, while Bayesian analyses indicated moderate support for equal depression scores on the Zung SDS. Limitations: Lack of a clinician-rated depression scale at week nine in addition to the self-report measure. Conclusion: In contrast to previous studies in non-clinical samples, our findings suggest that measurement frequency does not have an impact on scores of the BDI-II. Implications for clinical studies monitoring depressive symptom scores with self-report scales are discussed. Keywords: major depressive disorder; retest effects; measurement error; measurement frequency; Beck Depression Inventory; Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology

Supporting Information, Appendices for Dimensions of Normal Personality as Networks in Search of Equilibrium: You Can't like Parties if you Don't like People by Cramer Angélique O. J., Van Der Sluis Sophie, Noordhof Arjen, Wichers Marieke, Geschwind Nicole, Aggen Steven H., Kendler Kenneth S. and Borsboom Denny in European Journal of Personality

Rumination is a process of uncontrolled, narrowly focused negative thinking that is often self-referential, and that is a hallmark of depression. Despite its importance, little is known about its cognitive mechanisms. Rumination can be thought of as a specific, constrained form of mind-wandering. Here, we introduce a cognitive model of rumination that we developed on the basis of our existing model of mind-wandering. The rumination model implements the hypothesis that rumination is caused by maladaptive habits of thought. These habits of thought are modeled by adjusting the number of memory chunks and their associative structure, which changes the sequence of memories that are retrieved during mind-wandering, such that during rumination the same set of negative memories is retrieved repeatedly. The implementation of habits of thought was guided by empirical data from an experience sampling study in healthy and depressed participants. On the basis of this empirically derived memory structure, our model naturally predicts the declines in cognitive task performance that are typically observed in depressed patients. This study demonstrates how we can use cognitive models to better understand the cognitive mechanisms underlying rumination and depression.Van Vugt, van der Velde, and collaborators show how cognitive architectures can implement verbal theories of psychiatric problems. They show how one theory of depressive rumination can be implemented in the ACT-R cognitive architecture by changing the contents of its simulated memory. These manipulations of memory habits lead the model to show impairments in a sustained attention task--a plausible impairment given that people who suffer from depression have concentration complaints.