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IntroductionTeacher burnout is a serious problem that requires quick attention and management since it not only compromises educational quality but also strains schools’ financial resources.Research objectiveThe purpose of the present study was to profile burnout indicators for teachers in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. A secondary goal was to evaluate the consistency of burnout profiles between elementary and secondary school teachers.MethodParticipants were 703 teachers who participated in the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS 2019) and were part of the measurement in Saudi Arabia and participated in this study. A series of nested latent class models were run using 1–6 classes to identify an optimal number of interpretable subgroups (latent classes) that best describe the latent construct of teacher burnout in the elementary and high school setting.ResultsThe most important finding was that more than one-third of the teachers reported high levels of burnout irrespective of education level or gender. Furthermore, teachers’ experience and age were positive predictors of burnout with older teachers having significantly elevated levels of burnout. Gender on the other hand did not play a significant moderating role in teachers’ levels of burnout.ImplicationsReducing the number of students in each class, reorganizing the administrative work that has to be done, adding more support personnel to classrooms, and increasing time management skills and tactics via professional development programs are all potential solutions that might help alleviate the problem of teacher burnout.

IntroductionThe present study aims to develop an R function to develop and visualize thresholds that describe the response time of individuals concerning their sample. The function utilizes the cumulative proportion correct (CUMP) approach, to estimate item-specific time threshold, which originated in the work of Guo and his colleagues. Besides the CUMP approach, the present function presents response time profiles on a measure using the mean of the sample and + 1SD times so that it can discern between thoughtful engagement and processing with an item (termed problem-solving behavior) and rapid responding, guessing, and disengagement with the test. The advantage of the CUMP model utilized here is that it simultaneously engages both response time and response correctness to establish thresholds that differentiate engaged from disengaged participants.MethodsGiven data on a measure of reading comprehension for students in Saudi Arabia (n = 494) using the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS 2021) international assessment, high and low-achieving individuals that engaged in different behavior patterns were identified and plotted against their sample.Results and conclusionResults pointed to the importance and necessity of the RTcutoff function to identify variable forms of engagement that have implications for person-score validity but also have implications for test validity and the need to increase measurement precisio.

The purpose of the present study was to relate a principal’s qualifications with a school’s emphasis on academic success. Participants were n = 206 principals of respective schools in Saudi Arabia that took part in the study as a function of the TIMSS-2019 assessment. Principals were administered the eleven-item “School Emphasis on Academic Success” scale. A binary covariate defining low and high principal qualifications was computed. The Multiple Indicators Multiple Causes (MIMIC) model was involved with the latent means of both a general and three specific factors being regressed on the covariate to evaluate latent mean differences across differentially qualified principals. Furthermore, each one of the instrument’s indicators was regressed on the principal covariate to evaluate the presence of Differential Item Functioning (DIF) or in other words additional effects due to item content. Results indicated a significant omnibus effect for the general factor only, with highly qualified principals holding significantly more positive beliefs about how parents, teachers, and students feel about their school’s emphasis on academic success. Further analyses at the item level indicated that “teacher expectations” were the single item presenting a DIF effect with highly qualified principals having stronger beliefs about their teacher’s expectations of student success over and above the latent factor mean. Results are discussed on how they inform educational policy and practice.

There is limited research on the role of childhood trauma in personality pathology according to Kernberg's psychodynamic model of internalized object relations. Because childhood trauma reflects the disruptions of these relations, it is expected to predict borderline personality organization, especially at the threshold of adulthood. Therefore, the main aim of this retrospective study was to examine the impact of childhood trauma on borderline personality organization in a community sample of emerging adults. Participants were 543 Greek individuals aged 18–29 (M = 21.45; 58.6 % females; 85.1 % university students). They completed the Greek versions of the Traumatic Antecedents Questionnaire (TAQ) and the Inventory of Personality Organization (IPO), which were tested for their factorial structure, reliability, and measurement invariance across gender, as few empirical data exist on the psychometric properties of these measures. Confirmatory factor analyses showed that the TAQ consisted of four factors, namely positive experiences, abuse, traumatic life events, and family chaos. The five-factor theoretical structure of the IPO, namely primitive defenses, identity diffusion, reality testing, aggression, and moral values, was confirmed. Low to moderate links between childhood trauma and borderline personality organization were found, with stronger links emerging for abuse and family chaos. Structural equation modeling showed that the various forms of childhood trauma across the age periods studied (i.e., 0–6, 7–12, 13–18) significantly and differentially predicted the dimensions of borderline personality organization. The finding that stronger links emerged when trauma occurred in older ages may be attributed to the retrospective method of the study. Gender differences were also found; for example, personality pathology was more likely in men when abuse and traumatic life events occurred in younger ages and abuse was a more important risk factor for personality pathology in women. This study highlights the impact of childhood adversity on personality pathology in emerging adulthood, provides empirical support for Kernberg's psychodynamic model, and has useful implications for trauma-informed early screening, prevention, and intervention regarding personality pathology in young people. Limitations of this study and suggestions for future research are outlined.

IntroductionThe Neurodevelopmental Parent Report for Outcome Monitoring (ND-PROM), initially developed to monitor developmental and behavioral functions in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), assesses symptoms across a wide range of domains relevant in Down syndrome (DS).MethodsPsychometric properties of ND-PROM were assessed in 385 individuals with DS and 52 with a combined diagnosis of DS and ASD (DS+ASD), whose caregivers completed the ND-PROM questionnaire for a clinical visit in a specialized Down syndrome program at a tertiary pediatric hospital. Confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to evaluate the internal structure validity of the ND-PROM. Measurement invariance was assessed, with a comparison group of 246 individuals with ASD, and latent mean differences between the DS and ASD-only groups, as well as the combined DS+ASD groups, were assessed.ResultsFindings support the existence of the 12 clinically-derived factors in the DS population: Expressive Language, Receptive Language, Adaptive skills/Toileting, Social Emotional Understanding, Social Interaction, Independent Play, Sensory Processes, Challenging Behaviors, Impulse/ADHD, and Mental Health. Differences in response patterns of development and behaviors were observed between those with DS and those with ASD, including those with DS having higher abilities in nonverbal communication, social emotional understanding, and social interaction, and fewer restricted and repetitive behaviors and interests, impulsivity or ADHD symptoms, and mental health concerns compared to those with ASD. Individuals in the DS+ASD group had more difficulties with expressive and receptive language, nonverbal and social communication, social interaction, independent play, and adaptive skills than either the DS-only group or the ASD-only groups.DiscussionThe ND-PROM has a desirable factor structure and is a valid and clinically useful tool that captures a range of distinct and independent areas of developmental and behavioral functioning in DS, for individuals with and without an ASD diagnosis.

Abstract Introduction During the COVID‐19 pandemic, an influx of adolescents presented worldwide with acute onset of functional tic‐like behaviors (FTLBs). Our goal was to evaluate psychosocial factors around onset, to elucidate outcomes after pandemic isolation protocols were lifted, and to examine therapy and medication management. Methods A retrospective review was performed of 56 patients ages 10–18 years with new‐onset FTLBs seen at Boston Children's Hospital beginning in March 2020. Demographic factors, medical history, and treatment were evaluated. Patient outcomes were determined retrospectively based on the Clinical Global Impression Improvement (CGI‐I) and Severity (CGI‐S) scales from follow‐up visits. CGI‐I scores assessed the progression of FTLBs; CGI‐S assessed overall function. Results Ninety‐six percent of patients were female‐assigned at birth with high rates of comorbid anxiety (93%) and depression (71%). Forty‐five percent were gender‐diverse. Based on scales that assessed FTLBs (CGI‐I) and overall functioning (CGI‐S), up to 79% of patients improved independent of comorbid diagnosis or treatment. Evidence‐based tic‐specific treatments were not more effective than other treatments. A subset of patients had improvement in their FTLBs but not in their general functioning and continued to have other psychosomatic presentations. Conclusion While many patients’ FTLBs improved, it is critical to remain alert to patients’ overall function and to assess for other functional neurological disorders and mental health concerns. The tendency of FTLBs to improve in this population, independent of treatment, highlights the unique pathophysiology of FTLBs. Future research on contributing psychosocial factors and specific treatment protocols will allow optimal support for these patients.

Several studies have evaluated different versions of the Inventory of Personality Organization (IPO) around the world and some shortened versions of the instrument have also been constructed. The aim of this study was to develop the first brief Greek-language version of the IPO (IPO-Brief-GR) to be used for clinical screening and research purposes regarding personality pathology defined according to Kernberg's object relations model of personality organization. Data were collected from a community sample of 543 Greek emerging adults aged 18–29 years (M = 21.45, SD = 2.51) with the 83-item IPO, from which a 30-item version was constructed, based on confirmatory factor analysis of the full measure. The psychometric properties of the IPO-Brief-GR were then examined. Confirmatory factor analyses indicated that a four-factor structure best fitted the data, that is, primitive defenses/identity diffusion, reality testing, aggression, and moral values. Criterion validity and internal consistency reliability were also supported. Measurement invariance across gender using an exact protocol approach (i.e., configural, metric, scalar) was found allowing latent mean comparisons. These preliminary findings support the reliability and validity of the IPO-Brief-GR for the assessment of borderline personality organization and indicate the need for further research into the psychometric properties and clinical utility of this measure.

The goal of the present study was to compare and contrast the efficacy of a multistage testing (MST) design using three paths compared to a traditional computer-based testing (CBT) approach involving items across all ability levels. Participants were n = 627 individuals who were subjected to both a computer-based testing (CBT) instrument and a measure constructed using multistage testing to route individuals of low, middle, and high ability to content that was respective to their ability level. Comparisons between the medium of testing involved person ability accuracy estimates and evaluation of aberrant responding. The results indicated that MST assessments deviated markedly from CBT assessments, especially for low- and high-ability individuals. Test score accuracy was higher overall in MST compared to CBT, although error of measurement was enhanced for high-ability individuals during MST compared to CBT. Evaluating response patterns indicated significant amounts of Guttman-related errors during CBT compared to MST using person-fit aberrant response indicators. It was concluded that MST is associated with significant benefits compared to CBT.

The goal of the present study was to propose a visualization of aberrant response patterns based on the idea put forth by the Cronbach-Mesbach curve. First, an index of person reliability is developed using the K-R 20 formula followed by a backward stepwise procedure in which one person at a time is deleted from the model. Observations for which reliability is no longer monotonically increasing suggest that they are candidates for aberrant responding. Using data from the quantitative domain of a national aptitude test the proposed visualization technique was demonstrated. The external validity of the procedure was tested by contrasting the person fit reliability estimates with those derived from other indices of aberrant responding such as the Ht. Results indicated that individuals not covarying with other individuals concerning their response patterns and concordance to the measurement of a unified latent trait were identified by both the present procedure and Ht and U3 at a rate of 100%. By plotting those individuals using Person Response Curves (PRCs) results confirmed the lack of monotonicity in the relationship between item difficulty and person skill. Consequently, results confirm the usefulness of the present methodology as an index for identifying responders who manifest themselves with aberrant responses and who are not conducive to the measurement of the latent trait.

The goal of the present study was to evaluate the roles of item position in terms of item difficulty levels in the assessment of aptitude. Using data from a National Examination in Saudi Arabia, the item position effect was evaluated as a teacher licensure test (GTLT) was administered using five different forms with the same items appearing in a different order. Results indicated minuscule in magnitude position effects estimates, overall, with initially 11.1% of the tests being significant but all of them failing to reach significance using the Holm–Bonferroni’s and Sidak corrective procedures. With regard to gender, item position effects emerged in 47.6% of the tests after adjusting the level of significance using the Sidak correction. Interestingly, the direction of effect was consistent so that in 87% of the significant gender comparisons, item position effects were in the direction where females were spending more time on items when they appeared in later positions on the test compared to males. Assuming that items appearing later on the test are likely more difficult, the present findings suggest a profile of deep processing and active engagement in females when facing achievement tests.

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the reliability and validity of the General Aptitude Test (GAT), a national instrument for the measurement of aptitude/achievement in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia as a function of daytime testing. Participants were 722 students who took on the GAT across morning and evening administrations in a within-person pre-post design. Participants were matched for gender, parental education, and test center characteristics (i.e., size). The GAT was tested for its psychometric properties and its measurement invariance across time of day. Results pointed to a significant misfit using an exact invariance protocol. Specifically, there was a large number of non-invariant items pointing to Differential Item Functioning (DIF). Second, internal consistency reliabilities were consistently lower during morning testing compared to evening testing as evidenced using both statistical and visual means. Concerns about dimensionality were also raised for the morning compared to the evening administration. Last, comparison of performance levels indicated that morning testing was associated with significant decrements in performance across all domains compared to performance levels during evening testing. The results have implications for the validity of measurement and public testing policy if test validity during morning administration is compromised.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by social communication and social interaction impairments accompanied by restrictive and repetitive behaviors or interests. Co-occurring conditions may greatly impact overall functioning and intervention needs, and contribute to individual variability and etiologic subtypes. Clinical care of individuals with ASD requires gathering a breadth of information across multiple domains. The neurodevelopmental parent report for outcome monitoring (ND-PROM) was developed to assess symptoms across core features of ASD as well as frequent concerns and comorbidities. The current study expands upon the initially reported psychometric properties of the ND-PROM and evaluates a proposed a clinically derived 12-factor structure of the ND-PROM.Methods and proceduresThe ND-PROM was completed for 246 children with ASD ands tested using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and measurement invariance based on sex.Outcomes and resultsA 12-factor correlated structure was found (expressive language, receptive language, nonverbal communication, social emotional understanding, social interaction, independent play, adaptive/toileting skills, restrictive and repetitive behaviors and interests, sensory processes, challenging behaviors, impulse/ADHD, and mental health), which did not vary by sex.Conclusions and implicationsThe ND-PROM captures a range of distinct aspects of developmental and behavioral functioning in ASD that can be used to track independent functioning across domains.

We sought to characterize developmental trajectories of EEG spectral power over the first 2 years after birth and examine whether family income or maternal education alter those trajectories. We analyzed EEGs (n = 161 infants, 534 EEGs) collected longitudinally between 2 and 24 months of age, and calculated frontal absolute power across 7 canonical frequency bands. For each frequency band, a piecewise growth curve model was fit, resulting in an estimated intercept and two slope parameters from 2 to 9 months and 9–24 months of age. Across 6/7 frequency bands, absolute power significantly increased over age, with steeper slopes in the 2–9 month period compared to 9–24 months. Increased family income, but not maternal education, was associated with higher intercept (2–3 month power) across delta–gamma bands (p range = 0.002–0.04), and reduced change in power between 2 and 9 months of age in lower frequency bands (delta-alpha, p range = 0.01–0.02). There was no significant effect of income on slope between 9 and 24 months. EEG intercept and slope measures did not mediate relationships between income and 24-month verbal and nonverbal development. These results add to growing literature concerning the role of socioeconomic factors in shaping brain trajectories.

The present study aims at examining predictors of high school students’ academic achievement from student-level and school-level predictors in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, especially in light of policy mandates on educational reform in accordance with Vision 2030. Participants were 528,854 individuals who took on the Standard Achievement Admission Test (SAAT), along with other demographic variables. The mean age of participants was 19.7 years with an SD = 1.87. There were 234,813 males and 294,041 females. A Multilevel Random Coefficient Modeling (MRCM) model was engaged to identify predictors of academic achievement. Results indicated the positive roles of being a female, having educational parents, being educated in religious schools or large schools, and having small student-to-teacher ratios and the negative roles of student absences, student age, and being educated in new schools. Results are viewed under the lenses of new policy mandates on educational reform in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

Genetically guided therapy for major depression has been recently recommended but has resulted in null effects. We hypothesized that a potential confounding variable for not finding differences in Length of Stay and Re-admission rate in a major depression clinical trial is the equivalence between treatment protocols in the standard treatment (S) and CYP2D6 genotype (G) treatment groups. The two treatment protocols (i.e., type and degree of substrate drugs) were contrasted using a latent class analysis (LCA) model. Specifically, an LCA model specifying the presence of two classes, namely, the G and S groups was estimated with the intercepts of the 30 prescribed drugs freely estimated. This model was compared to a constrained latent class model in which the two treatment protocols (intercept terms) were contrasted to be equivalent between the two treatment groups. Results indicated that there were no significant differences between G and S treatment groups in the types and number of drugs administered. Consequently, the lack of finding significant differences in length of stay and readmission rate may likely be attributed to the equivalence of the treatment protocols.

The current research aimed to examine the similarities and differences in bullying prevalence across the six member states of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC): Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates. Level tests require measurement invariance to be met before they can be performed. In 2019, 45k people participated and provided data for the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMMS). When the exact measurement invariance (MI) protocols failed, the alignment methodology was used to analyze the data. After ensuring measurement invariance via the free alignment method, findings revealed statistically significant differences in bullying prevalence; specifically, bullying levels were significantly lower in Saudi Arabia compared to all other countries. The United Arab Emirates ranked second, with the second-lowest bullying rates, which were also significantly lower compared to the rates in all the other countries. As a whole, Saudi Arabia had the lowest levels, followed by the UAE, Kuwait, Oman, Bahrain, and Qatar. Although the absolute difference between Saudi Arabia and the other countries was only modest, further research into the causes, consequences, and preventative measures of bullying is warranted.

The goal of the present study was to evaluate the roles of response times in the achievement of students in the following latent ability domains: (a) verbal, (b) math and spatial reasoning, (c) mental flexibility, and (d) scientific and mechanical reasoning. Participants were 869 students who took on the Multiple Mental Aptitude Scale. A mixture item response model was implemented to evaluate the roles of response times in performance by modeling ability and non-ability classes. Results after applying this model to the data across domains indicated the presence of several behaviors related to rapid responding which were covaried with low achievement likely representing unsuccessful guessing attempts.

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the factorial structure of the bullying scale on the Trends in International Mathematics and Science (TIMSS 2019) for eighth graders and evaluate the instrument’s invariance across gender so that tests of level between males and females can be conducted. Data came from the 2019 cohort of TIMSS in Saudi Arabia. The 14-item scale was evaluated using three competing models: (a) a unidimensional structure, (b) the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA) online, non-online two-factor model, and (c) the Wang et al. (2012) 4-domain bullying taxonomy. Participants were 5567 eighth graders who participated in the 2019 TIMSS study. There were 2856 females and 2711 males. The mean age was 13.9 years. Data were analyzed using Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Mplus 8.9. Results indicated that a 4-domain structure including verbal, physical, relational, and online bullying represented the most optimal factor structure of the 14-item bullying measure. Tests of exact measurement invariance for gender originally failed but were then satisfied using the newly recommended “alignment” methodology. Latent mean differences were salient and significant suggesting that levels of bullying across all domains were elevated in males compared to females, contrasting earlier views that different types of bullying are linked to males versus females. Results are discussed in relation to educational policy interventions.

The present study predicts teacher burnout from previous experiences, efficacious beliefs, student achievement, and parental engagement. Data came from the Trends in International Mathematics and Science study (TIMSS 2019) and utilized a random sample of n = 2000 from the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. It was hypothesized that parental engagement and involvement in school may represent a salient factor in understanding teacher burnout in that if parental disengagement is high, necessary supports and resources available to the teacher are withdrawn. This thesis was tested using the cusp catastrophe with linear negative predictors of teacher burnout being teacher satisfaction, years of experience, teacher efficacy, and student achievement. The role of parental disengagement was verified with critically low levels of parental engagement being associated with abrupt and unpredictable levels of teacher burnout. It is concluded that parental engagement and involvement in schools may provide critical supports that are necessary for teachers to successfully manage their workload.

The purpose of the present study was to profile bullying behaviors in elementary schools in Saudi Arabia. A secondary purpose was to examine differences in bullying behaviors across gender. Participants were 3867 fourth graders who completed surveys during the TIMSS 2019 survey. An 11-item bullying experience scale was utilized with good internal consistency reliability. Data were analyzed using latent class analysis with Mplus 8.9 to identify profiles of bullying experiences. The results indicated the presence of five profiles with levels of low, medium, and high bullying experiences, as well as two profiles with no cyberbullying experiences and medium high and medium low physical and verbal instances of bullying. Gender effects were highly pronounced, with most maladaptive bullying profiles being predominantly male. It is concluded that physical bullying is mainly occupied by males and the levels of cyberbullying are generally low in the elementary school grades. Implications for educational policy can clearly direct the development of support groups and expert counseling for both bullies and victims, staff training for identification and course of action, and the development of standardized school policies when such incidences occur.

The goal of the present study was to extend earlier work on the estimation of person theta using maximum likelihood estimation in R by accounting for rapid guessing. This paper provides a modified R function that accommodates person thetas using the Rasch or 2PL models and implements corrections for the presence of rapid guessing or informed guessing behaviors. Initially, a sample of 200 participants was generated using Mplus in order to demonstrate the use of the function with the full sample and a single participant in particular. Subsequently, the function was applied to data from the General Aptitude Test (GAT) and the measurement of cognitive ability. Using a sample of 8500 participants, the present R function was demonstrated. An illustrative example of a single participant, assumed to be either a rapid responder or a successful guesser, is provided using MLE and BME. It was concluded that the present function can contribute to a more valid estimation of person ability.

Language acquisition is of central importance to child development. Although this developmental trajectory is shaped by experience postnatally, the neural basis for language emerges prenatally. Thus, a fundamental question remains: do structural foundations for language in infancy predict long-term language abilities? Longitudinal investigation of 40 children from infancy to kindergarten reveals that white matter in infancy is prospectively associated with subsequent language abilities, specifically between: (i) left arcuate fasciculus and phonological awareness and vocabulary knowledge, (ii) left corticospinal tract and phonological awareness, and bilateral corticospinal tract with phonological memory; controlling for age, cognitive, and environmental factors. Findings link white matter in infancy with school-age language abilities, suggesting that white matter organization in infancy sets a foundation for long-term language development.

Objectives: We examine the association between perceived discrimination, mental health, social support, and support for violent radicalization (VR) in young adults from three locations across two countries: Montréal and Toronto, Canada, and Boston, United States. A secondary goal is to test the moderating role of location.Methods: A total of 791 young adults between the ages of 18 and 30, drawn from the Somali Youth longitudinal study and a Canada-based study of college students, participated in the study. We used multivariate linear regression to assess the association between scores on the Radical Intentions Scale (RIS) with demographic characteristics, anxiety, depression, social support, and discrimination.Results: In the full sample, discrimination, age, and gender were associated with RIS scores. When we examined moderation effects by location, RIS scores were associated with depression only in Montréal, and with social support (negatively) and discrimination in Toronto. None of the variables were significant in Boston.Conclusion: These findings suggest that an understanding of risk and protective factors for support of VR may be context-dependent. Further research should take into consideration local/regional differences.