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Purpose The purpose of this study is to investigate the federal sentencing of organizational probation for environmental offenders using the focal concerns. Those organizations that are more blameworthy should be sentenced to longer probation terms. However, little research has been conducted to examine whether probation is being sentenced accordingly. This is especially true for organizations convicted of environmental offenses, which are often thought of as deserving of increased penalties compared to non-environmental offenses. Design/methodology/approach This study used quantitative federal sentencing data from 2011 to 2020 (n = 1,436) and eight potential measures of blameworthiness grounded in the focal concerns. Findings The results showed that those organizations convicted of environmental crimes received 30% longer probation sentences than those not convicted of environmental crimes. However, additional measurements of blameworthiness derived from the existing literature of focal concerns were not relevant to probation sentencing decisions. Originality/value This study extends the application of the focal concerns and increases the body of knowledge regarding the sentencing of federal environmental offenders.

To improve diversity in hiring, this quantitative study examines the applicant physical fitness testing standards of the Kentucky State Police (KSP) to determine whether the test or specific events have a disparate impact for female state police applicants. A sample of 427 state police applicants was collected from applicant fitness testing conducted by the KSP between 2014 and 2019. Bivariate analysis was used to compare the output of males and females. Logistic regression was used to determine predictors for passing fitness testing. The results show a potential disparate impact based upon significant performance differences in three of the five fitness events: bench press, 300-meter run, and push-ups. Predictors for passing applicant fitness testing were being male, having a lower body weight and having 2 years of military service. Sex was found to be a predictor for passing push-ups and 300-meter run. Recommendations suggest amending the fitness events, establishing equitable scoring criteria based upon sex without averaging, and reassessment and evaluation. Provisions for evaluation were provided.

A systematic review of literature investigating cyberstalking offending and victimization was conducted, considering multiple key words and phrases used to label the behavior: cyberstalking, cyber dating abuse, cybervictimization, Internet, interpersonal electronic surveillance, and victimization. The following electronic databases, with the indication of peer-reviewed journal articles as a requirement, were searched: Academic Search Complete, Criminal Justice Database (ProQuest), Google, JSTOR and PsychInfo. After sorting through the studies using the inclusion and exclusion criteria, 31 studies remained for review. Correlates of the behaviors were discussed for each categorization, with main themes including negative characteristics of relationship behaviors, and social media and online use as main predictors of victimization and offending. There is a strong need for further research utilizing older age groups and individuals who are married, as well as a need for longitudinal research.

This study sought to understand the issue of racial profiling in police requests to consent search the driver. The social conditioning model was applied as a theoretical explanation of the officer ...

Best practices for graduate student education and training has been under recent scrutiny, especially as universities are looking for methods of improving their programs. A method of demonstrating proficient and successful programs is providing evidence of successful alumni. This study will provide a quantitative and qualitative analysis of an alumni survey of a criminology doctoral program from a mid-sized university in the Northeast. With the results, we intend to highlight not only the successes of the alumni, but also potential lessons that other doctoral programs can apply to enhance future successes with their graduates.

Justice-involved women frequently experience victimization histories, mental illness, and substance use disorders, which create challenges with completing probation sentences. Although most justice...

Purpose The purpose of this study is to explore the experiences of university students with nonconsensual pornography. The focus of the present work is on nonconsensual pornography – the nonconsensual distribution of intimate images and sexual extortion – that are becoming common experiences for many people. While the forms of nonconsensual pornography may vary, each case has one thing in common: the offender has shared a private image of the victim without the victim’s consent. Design/methodology/approach The data for this study was collected from student participants at a southeastern university. The stratified sample of university students was sent a link to an online survey and the responses of those who chose to respond were used in subsequent analyses (n = 300). Findings The findings of this exploratory study show low self-control as a significant predictor of sexting. Significant predictors of victimization via nonconsensual pornography included participation in sexting and use of dating apps. Originality/value While not generalizable, the descriptive data provide an important landscape for consideration of policy and legal recommendations to protect potential victims as well as would-be perpetrators beyond a university setting.

The current study aimed to identify the correlates of post-traumatic stress among a sample of women on probation and parole with a history of victimization. Community-based sampling was used to recruit 406 women on probation and parole in Jefferson County, Kentucky. The post-traumatic stress diagnostic scale was used to measure three indicators of post-traumatic stress: post-traumatic stress disorder diagnosis, symptom severity, and the number of life domains impacted by symptoms. Shaped by the comprehensive health seeking and coping paradigm, logistic and ordinary least squares regression analyses were used to examine the relationships between sociodemographic factors, criminal justice involvement, cumulative victimization, substance use, social support, material loss, homelessness, and post-traumatic stress. Models identifying correlates of post-traumatic stress accounted for between 18.6% and 26% of the variance and point to critical opportunities for intervention surrounding the dynamic factors of recent intimate partner violence and material loss. Targeting these important factors during community supervision is anticipated to decrease post-traumatic stress and increase the likelihood of success under criminal justice system supervision.

The purpose of this study was to determine whether persons of different racial/ethnic backgrounds differ in their perceptions of the role racial discrimination plays in the overrepresentation of Bl...

Purpose The purpose of this study is to use crime mapping techniques to examine geographic patterns of signed deferred and non-prosecution agreements across federal districts. The purpose is also to examine the variation in the number of agreements by the district since 1992. Design/methodology/approach This study uses data from the Corporate Prosecution Registry to examine geographic patterns in federal corporate agreements since 1992 (n = 534). Choropleth mapping techniques were used to create national crime maps displaying the geographic locations of signed corporate agreements. Findings The results showed that, overall, prosecutors in the District of Columbia have signed the most federal corporate agreements although there is some variation over time. Research limitations/implications This study is unable to determine the causes of changes in the geographic placement or number of agreements signed. It is also unable to determine the precise geographic locations of crimes, but only the location of the District Court that elected to pursue a federal agreement with the organization. Practical implications The wide discretion prosecutors have in the agreement process has led to an overall lack of transparency concerning prosecutors’ decision-making when signing agreements with organizations. This study helps to make the number and geographic location of agreements more transparent. Originality/value This study uses crime mapping techniques to visually depict the locations of signed agreements allowing for visual comparisons and analyzes for an extended period of time.

Conflicting with its Republican idealism, France’s colonial legacy and history of xenophobia has led to riots by the first-, second-, and third-generation immigrants who experienced unemployment and social marginalization. Motivated by politicians advocating for expanded police powers to search and arrest citizens, the French media reported these unemployment issues causing an increase in crime and police brutality in immigrant-dominated neighborhoods, only to increase feelings of insecurity and fear of crime among the French population. Thus, theoretically informed by Ferraro’s (Fear of crime: interpreting victimization risk, State University of New York Press, Albany, 1995) risk interpretation model, the present study plans to identify the factors that predict variations in fear of crime among a representative sample of persons age 15 and older living in France. While individual-level factors such as gender, economic marginalization, health problems, perceived discrimination, prior experience with victimization, and living in a large city are more likely to predict a higher level of fear of crime, in the overall sample, one’s immigrant status does not affect one’s level of perceived safety. Inter-group comparisons indicate that among natives, gender and perceived discrimination have a stronger effect on fear of crime, while residency in large urban areas and victimization have a stronger influence on immigrants’ feelings of unsafety.

This study examines the issue of prosecutorial discretion and the decision to offer a plea of life without parole (LWOP) in Kentucky death-eligible homicide cases (2000–2016). Using focal concerns ...

The misuse of prescription medication is a prominent public health concern in the United States. The current study examines prescription drug misuse among adolescents under age 18, a segment of the...

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to draw a better understanding of the potential impact of daylight in officer decision making. In order to this, the authors test the veil of darkness hypothesis, which theorizes that racial bias in traffic stops can be tested by controlling for the impact of daylight, while operating under the assumption that driver patterns remain constant across race.Design/methodology/approachPublicly available traffic-stop records from the Louisville Metro Police Department for January 2010–2019. The analysis includes both propensity score matching to examine the impact of daylight in similarly situated stops and coefficients testing to analyze how VOD may vary in citation-specific models.FindingsThe results show that using PSM following the VOD hypothesis does show evidence of racial bias, with Black drivers more likely to be stopped. Moreover, the effects of daylight significantly varied across citation-specific models.Research limitations/implicationsThe data are self-reported from the officer and do not contain information on the vehicle make or model.Practical implicationsThis paper shows that utilizing PSM and coefficients testing provides for a better analysis following the VOD hypothesis and does a better job of understanding the impact of daylight and the officer decision-making on traffic stops.Social implicationsBased on the quality of the data, the findings show that the use of VOD allows for the performance of more rigorous analyses of traffic stop data – giving police departments a better way to examine if racial profiling is evident.Originality/valueThis is the first study (to the researchers' knowledge) that applies the statistical analyses of PSM to the confines of the veil of darkness hypothesis.

This exploratory paper examined the correlates of the decision of shoppers who perceived that they were victims of profiling in a retail setting to report the incident. As part of a larger study on...

In federal courts in the U.S., judges can require criminal organizations to implement corporate compliance programs, ideally to decrease future crime occurrences. However, it is unclear of the circumstances that merit this sentence. This study examines a primary consideration when sentencing criminal organizations that is drawn from the focal concerns framework: the blameworthiness of the organization in the commission of the crime. The study uses data compiled by the U.S. Sentencing Commission from federal documents for 1,125 organizations that were sentenced in federal criminal courts between October 1, 2010, and September 30, 2017. Results showed that several measures of blameworthiness were significantly related to the sentencing of corporate compliance programs, showing partial support for the focal concern of blameworthiness. The policy implications of these findings are also discussed.

This study examines if judges sentence criminal corporations that are more blameworthy in the commission of crimes to community service penalties. This blameworthiness consideration is drawn from the focal concerns framework. The study uses data compiled by the U.S. Sentencing Commission from court documents for the cases of 1125 corporations that were sentenced in federal criminal courts nationwide between October 1, 2010, and September 30, 2017. Results showed that corporations with higher base fines were significantly more likely to be sentenced to terms of community service compared to those corporations with base fines. Policy implications are discussed.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to assess if federal judges have sentenced criminal corporations to fines that are consistent with the seriousness of the offense and the blameworthiness of the organization, which would be in line with the directives from the US Sentencing Guidelines. This paper will also use the focal concerns framework to measure organizational blameworthiness. Design/methodology/approach This paper uses secondary data from federal sentencing documents, collected by the US Sentencing Commission, for cases that were adjudicated between October 1, 2010 and September 30, 2017. Findings Results showed that the focal concerns framework can be used to define potential constructs for blameworthiness and that an organization’s culpability score was a significant predictor in whether the company received a higher fine. Research limitations/implications The data are unable to examine two of the three measures of focal concerns. Cross-sectional data limits the ability to draw conclusions regarding cause and effect between blameworthiness and monetary fines. Practical implications Results imply that judges are sentencing corporations that have higher culpability scores to more severe fines, in accordance with both the federal Sentencing Guidelines and focal concerns framework. Originality/value This study is one of the first to apply the focal concerns framework, usually used to examine the sentencing of individuals, to the sentencing of corporations. It is also one of the first to attempt to empirically define blameworthiness.

Despite an overrepresentation of Black women in the criminal justice system, Black women’s mental health at the precarious intersection of race, gender, and community-based correctional supervision has been underresearched. Building on weathering theory, this study conceptualized criminal justice involvement as a social inequality that negatively affects Black women’s mental health. This study investigated the relationships between recent stressors, forms of social support, and depression through moderated regression analyses with a sample of 169 Black women on probation and parole. Almost half of the women met criteria for clinical levels of depression. Distinct forms of social support served as statistically significant protective factors between stressors and depression symptoms. Our findings highlight the importance of studying the mental health of Black women under correctional surveillance and bolstering multiple forms of support to promote their well-being. The impact of criminal justice involvement and institutional racism on Black women’s mental health requires further research.

Objective: Binge drinking among African-Americans is an important area of research; however, little research has examined this phenomenon using theory. The purpose of this study is to provide an ex...

Risky sexual behavior among teenagers in the United States is a noted public health concern. The purpose of this study is to examine the correlates and theoretical predictors of risky sexual behavi...

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to apply focal concerns theory as a theoretical explanation for police officer decision making during a traffic stop that results in a consent search. The study uses coefficients testing to better examine the issue of racial profiling through the use of a race-specific model. Design/methodology/approach The data for this study come from traffic stops conducted by the Louisville Police Department between January 1 and December 31, 2002. Findings The results show that the three components of focal concerns theory can explain police officer decision making for consent searches. Yet, the components of focal concerns theory play a greater role in stops of Caucasian male drivers. Research limitations/implications The data for this study are cross-sectional and self-reported from police officers. Practical implications This paper shows the utility of applying focal concerns theory as a theoretical explanation for police officer decision making on consent searches and how the effects of focal concerns vary depending on driver race. Social implications The findings based on focal concerns theory can provide an opportunity for police officers or departments to explain what factors impact the decision making during consent searches. Originality/value This is the first study (to the researchers’ knowledge) that examines the racial effects of focal concerns on traffic stop consent searchers using coefficients testing.

Background: The many negative consequences and high rates of use associated with youth binge drinking make further study into its causes and correlates vital. Sport participation is a relevant factor in predicting drinking behaviors among youth in need of further research. Objectives: The current study tests the influence of specific types of sport participation on the binge drinking behaviors of African American youth through binary logistic regression. Study of this particular sample is vital as race and sport participation have been shown to be critical variables associated with variations in drinking behaviors. Results: Results indicated that various types of sport participation were uniquely associated with drinking behaviors. Conclusion/Importance: Results are framed through social learning, social bond, and the power sport hypothesis in accordance with previous research.

Binge drinking is still an issue among adolescents. The current study applies the theories of low self-control, social learning theory, and social bond theory to adolescent binge drinking. The data...

This study examined the robustness of the proposed factor structure of the Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI-18) in a sample of justice-involved women (N = 406). Efforts to assess accurately and interve...

Online victimization via cyberbullying and cyberstalking are plaguing our young online users. These tormenting and intrusive behaviors have infiltrated relationship formation, online communication and social identity. Friends and romantic partners have become increasingly dependent on the use of technology to initiate relationships. The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of the current state of these online crimes and the involvement of youth and young adults. We will consider current responses by our criminal justice system, as well as our educational and community groups. Based on what is currently implemented and its success factor, we will make our assertions about the effectiveness of scholastic work and its influence on what we are doing to combat these forms of cybervictimization.

The findings of this study outline the racial differences in stop and frisk decisions by Illinois officers in consent searches and those based upon reasonable suspicion within the context of the elements of focal concerns theory. The analysis for this study was performed using propensity score matching (PSM) and allowed the researchers to create a quasi-experimental design to examine the race of the citizen and police decision making. According to our analysis of official Illinois law enforcement data, Black citizens, particularly males, were less likely to give their consent to a stop and frisk search. Black male citizens were also more likely to be stopped and searched due to an assessment of reasonable suspicion by the officer. Elements of focal concerns theory were also factors in pedestrian stops under conditions of consent and reasonable suspicion. Citizens judged as blameworthy were more likely to be stopped and frisked under conditions of consent and reasonable suspicion. The effect of a verbal threat and the officer’s prior knowledge about the citizen had even more significant impacts.

Most of the research on alcohol use and being cyberbullied has focused on the correlation between the two. Less is known about the recent epidemiology of adolescent current alcohol use. Objective: ...

Objective Incarcerated adults have high rates of fatal and nonfatal suicidal behaviors. Suicide prevention recommendations stress the need for the provision of health care for incarcerated adults after suicide attempts, yet prison policies and practices often focus instead on punitive responses to suicidal behaviors. Existing research is limited regarding factors that predict the provision of health care to incarcerated adults post-suicide attempt. The current study examined individual, incident, and institutional factors as predictors of health care to incarcerated adults post-suicide attempt. Method We used data from critical incidents reports for suicide attempts (N = 495) to conduct mixed-effects logistical regression models. Results Staff responded to suicide attempts by placing incarcerated adults under direct observation (with no care) or in segregation at odds two and three times higher than of providing health care, particularly in prisons for men. Race was a significant factor; incidents involving Black men were less likely than incidents involving white men to include staff requesting health care, and incidents involving Black women were less likely than incidents involving white women to include requesting and providing health care. Conclusions This study's findings highlight factors predicting health care responses to suicide attempts and the need to address and prevent health care disparities in prisons.

Although low income is common across the U.S. probation population, women offenders experience it more than men. However, despite the connection between income and probation outcomes, limited research has been conducted on programs that could improve the financial circumstances of female probationers. This study examined the influence on probation outcomes of receiving government financial assistance programs and employment services. The findings indicated that participants who received Social Security Disability Insurance more often were less likely to become incarcerated. Implications include expanding cash assistance programs to provide more substantial monthly incomes for women probationers, particularly those with disabilities, in order to increase financial stability and improve criminal justice outcomes.

Suicide-related disclosure is an important component of identifying individuals at risk for suicide. However, no standardized measures exist to assess the degree to which individuals have disclosed suicide-related experiences. Therefore, the present study tested the psychometric properties of the Self-Harm and Suicide Disclosure Scale. A sample of 142 individuals, predominantly female and Caucasian, with ages ranging from 18-77 who had experienced suicidal ideation or behavior in their lifetime completed online surveys. A Rasch model analysis was used to test the item and individual separation and reliability and model fit of the instrument's use for disclosure to both family and nonfamily members. Analyses indicated strong item separation and reliability. Items were removed to improve model fit, resulting in two revised instruments. Findings indicate the Revised Suicide and Self-Harm Disclosure Scales are appropriate measures for assessing the depth of suicide-related disclosure. Future studies should attempt to replicate these findings with a more diverse sample.

Adolescence can be an extremely volatile time for high school students. Heightened emotions and unexplained mood swings are not uncommon as young people are maneuvering developmental milestones (Ha...

Digital piracy is a global concern for society. Although adolescents’ digital piracy in South Korea is pervasive, its cause has rarely been examined. Using data collected by the Korean Institute of Criminology (KIC) in 2009, this study conducted structural equation modeling to determine if low self-control and social learning theory accounted for digital piracy. This study found that parental indifference increased adolescents’ digital piracy through low self-control and misconception about digital piracy. However, there were no direct effects of parental indifference on the digital piracy behaviors. In particular, the mediation effect in the model combining low self-control and misconception was greater compared to other models. Overall, the combination of low self-control and social learning theory provided a more meaningful framework to explain adolescents’ digital piracy. Results of this study can offer ways to aid in the examination and remediation of this particular form of deviant behaviors on the Internet by adolescents.

Background: Prescription drug–related overdose deaths have increased dramatically in recent years. Women in the justice system experience high rates of drug use, victimization, trauma symptoms, and other health problems and would appear to be at high risk for nonmedical use of prescription drugs (NMUPD). This study will be among the first to describe prevalence and correlates of NMUPD among this population. Methods: This cross-sectional study collected data from 406 victimized women on probation and parole between 2010 and 2012. In a multiple logistic regression model, we differentiated women who reported past-year NMUPD from those who did not using demographic, health, other drug use, substance use treatment, and trauma symptom severity variables. Results: Past-year NMUPD was reported by 26.8% ( n = 109) of the overall sample. Women reporting NMUPD were significantly younger and more likely to be white. Past-year use of alcohol (adjusted odds ratio [AOR]: 3.3; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.8–6.1), marijuana (AOR: 3.6; 95% CI: 1.8–7.0), methamphetamines (AOR: 6.1; 95% CI: 1.7–21.3), and heroin (AOR: 8.4; 95% CI: 2.0–35.2) were significantly associated with NMUPD. Additionally, each unit increase in the measure assessing bodily pain was associated with a 40% increase (AOR: 1.4; 95% CI: 1.1–1.7) in the odds of NMUPD. Finally, meeting diagnostic criteria for posttraumatic stress disorder almost doubled (AOR: 1.9; 95% CI: 1.1–3.4) the odds of reporting past-year NMUPD. Conclusions: Victimized women on probation and parole report high rates of NMUPD, and this behavior intersects with other complex social, behavioral, psychological, and physical needs. The authors recommend increased access to trauma-informed correctional care among women in the justice system.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine the issue of racial profiling when the traffic stop outcome is a search using focal concerns theory as a theoretical explanation for police officer decision making and propensity score matching (PSM) as a better analysis to understand the race of the driver. Design/methodology/approach The data for this study come from traffic stops conducted by the Louisville Police Department between January 1 and December 31, 2002. Findings The results show that the elements of focal concerns theory matter most when it comes to if a traffic stop that resulted in a search even though racial profiling was evident. The use of PSM provides evidence that it is a better statistical technique when studying racial profiling. The gender of the driver was significant for male drivers but not for female drivers. Research limitations/implications The data for this study are cross-sectional and are self-report data from the police officer. Practical implications This paper serves as a theoretical explanation that other researchers could use when studying racial profiling along with a better type of statistical analysis being PSM. Social implications The findings based on focal concerns theory could provide an explanation for police officer decision making that police departments could use to help citizens understand why a traffic stop search took place. Originality/value This is the first study of its kind to the researcher’s knowledge to apply focal concerns theory with PSM to understand traffic stop searches.

Researchers in criminal justice literature have relatively underexamined the delinquency among Native American (NA) youth. Using data from the Drug Use Among Young Indians: Epidemiology and Prediction study, the present study tested assumptions in Gottfredson and Hirschi’s self-control theory. This study found evidence supporting the theory. Low self-control was a significant predictor to NA adolescents’ delinquency. However, parental intervention as an opportunity measure and it was not a mediation between low self-control and delinquency. Moreover, while parental intervention significantly decreased delinquency by female adolescents, parental intervention significantly increased delinquency by male adolescents. In addition, the mediation effect in structural equation modeling for males occurred; in contrast, the effect in the female model did not happen. On the other hand, low self-control was still the crucial predictor to adolescents’ delinquency across gender. Thus, future studies will need to account for the etiology of NA adolescents’ delinquency across gender using different approaches.

Suicide is the leading cause of mortality in the world. The major factors of suicidal behavior are depressive symptoms. Using data from the Korean General Social Survey conducted in 2012, this stud...