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People who are happy with their romantic relationships report that their partners are particularly effective at meeting their everyday relational needs. However, the literature invites competing predictions about how people arrive at those evaluations. In pilot research, we validated a scale of concrete, specific relationship behaviors that can be performed by a romantic partner day-to-day. In Study 1, cross-lagged panel models examined how expectations of positive behaviors, perceptions of positive behaviors, and relationship quality predict changes in one another from week to week. People who expected more positive behaviors in turn perceived more positive behaviors from their partners 1 week later. Key effects extended to negative relationship behaviors (Study 2). In Study 3, the same pattern emerged in a dyadic sample, with expected behaviors predicting changes in perceived behaviors independent of the partner's own reports. Truth and bias analyses revealed that people with lower expectations had more negatively biased perceptions of their partners' behaviors, whereas high expectations were associated with better accuracy. We obtained these results in the context of specific, verifiable behaviors reported on over relatively short periods, underscoring how powerfully people's everyday relationship perceptions may be shaped by their more global perceptions. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Despite the growing interest in single (unpartnered) individuals’ well-being, there is a lack of descriptive research providing a comprehensive understanding of what singles value in their lives. In this research, we adopted a budget allocation methodology to examine what domains are prioritized in single individuals’ construal of a satisfying single life. We recruited two samples of participants, one primarily consisting of singles from Europe and America ( N = 851) and the other from Korea ( N = 1012). Across the two samples, we found that singles gave high priority to being mentally and physically healthy and having good family relationships. Only when those essentials were accounted for did single individuals turn significant attention to other life domains such as having good friendships, available romantic connections, and sexual opportunities. These findings have implications for understanding single individuals’ life priorities and well-being and set the groundwork for further research on singlehood.

A growing body of research suggests that despite the stereotype of being dissatisfied with their relationship status, there is variability in how single (unpartnered) individuals feel about singlehood. The current research examined how satisfaction with singlehood varies (linearly or nonlinearly) with age. In Study 1, we analyzed five cross-sectional samples of single individuals (

Despite the worldwide increase in unpartnered individuals (i.e., singles), little research exists to provide a comprehensive understanding of the heterogeneity within this population. In the present research (

Individual differences in attachment insecurity can have important implications for experiences of positive emotions. However, existing research on the link between attachment insecurity and positive emotional experiences has typically used a composite measure of positive emotions, overlooking the potential importance of differentiating discrete emotions.We conducted a meta-analysis of 10 cross-sectional samples (N = 3215), examining how attachment insecurity is associated with self-reported frequency of experiencing positive emotions, with a distinction made between more social (i.e., love and gratitude) and less social (i.e., peace and awe or curiosity) positive emotions.High (vs. low) levels of both attachment anxiety and avoidance were associated with less frequent experience of positive emotions regardless of their social relevance. When analyzing each emotion separately, we found that attachment anxiety showed negative relations to all emotions except gratitude. Attachment avoidance was negatively associated with all emotions, and the link was even stronger with love (vs. peace, awe, or curiosity). Additional analyses of daily diary data revealed that attachment anxiety and avoidance were also negatively associated with daily experiences of positive emotions, regardless of social relevance.Our results underscore the need to further investigate the mechanisms underlying insecure individuals' blunted positive emotional experiences.

The Fear of Being Single (FOBS) Scale (Spielmann et al., 2013) assesses insecurity about singlehood, but its items are phrased for those who are currently single. The present research validated the FOBS in Relationships Scale for individuals currently in relationships. Results suggested that both single and partnered individuals experience FOBS, and that the FOBS Scale and FOBS in Relationships Scale are appropriate measures for single and partnered individuals, respectively. We advise against using the original FOBS Scale for those in relationships, and recommend an abridged scale for researchers who wish to make direct comparisons of FOBS between single and partnered individuals.

In this prospective longitudinal study, we examined whether and how lack of intimacy or meaningful connection to a romantic partner (i.e., low social reward) and concerns over negative evaluation by the partner (i.e., high social threat) each predict dissolution of a relationship as well as adjustment when a breakup occurs. Our results showed that those who perceived lower levels of reward during the relationship were more likely to experience a breakup. This effect remained significant controlling for global relationship satisfaction and individual differences in attachment insecurity. The degree of reward also predicted experiencing less emotional attachment to the partner (now an ex-partner) postbreakup, but this effect diminished when controlling for satisfaction. In contrast, threat perceptions during the relationship did not predict breakup or emotional attachment to the ex. Our findings suggest that reward perceptions during the relationship have important consequences for relationship dissolution. Implications for breakup recovery are discussed.

With a growing body of relationship research relying on dyadic data (i.e., in which both members of a couple are participants), researchers have raised questions about whether such samples are representative of the population or unique in important ways. In this research, we used two large data sets (Study 1: n = 5,118; Study 2: n = 5,194) that included participants with and without a romantic partner participating to examine if co-participation status has substantive relationship implications. Results showed that co-participation status predicted breakup even after controlling for other known predictors such as satisfaction, although the effect weakened over time (Study 2). There was also tentative evidence that factors such as conflict may be differentially related to breakup among couples in which one versus both partners participated. These findings raise caution in interpreting effects found in dyadic studies and highlight the need to be mindful of potential bias in recruitment.

Research on adult attachment in romantic relationships has focused on the negative outcomes that avoidantly attached individuals face. The present research uses observational research methods to determine if there are specific ways of communicating affection that might help avoidantly attached people reap similar levels of rewards from affectionate communication as those who are more secure. We combined three samples ( Ntotal = 280 couples, 560 participants) who took turns describing a time they felt strong love for their partner, and coded their expressions for cues of verbal affection (i.e., emotion-laden words) and nonverbal affection (i.e., behavioral expressiveness). Higher levels of the speaker’s nonverbal affection were associated with stronger positive emotion and behavioral receptiveness (i.e., appearing engaged) for listeners higher in attachment avoidance. Altogether, we provide evidence that avoidantly attached individuals may experience positive outcomes from affectionate exchanges when the communication style is tailored to their unique needs.

Romantic relationships help people meet needs for connection and emotional and sexual fulfillment. In the current research, we investigate an unexplored response to feeling sexually and relationally unfulfilled: reflecting on positive sexual experiences with past partners (or sexual nostalgia). Across three studies, people low in attachment avoidance (i.e., comfortable with closeness) who were (a) single or (b) sexually or relationally dissatisfied reported greater sexual nostalgia, whereas people high in attachment avoidance (i.e., value autonomy) did not calibrate their feelings of sexual nostalgia based on their current relationship status or satisfaction. Sexual fantasies about past partners (i.e., sexual nostalgia) were distinct from other types of sexual fantasies (Study 1) and the effects could not be attributed to general nostalgia (Study 2) or sexual desire (Study 3). Chronic sexual nostalgia detracted from satisfaction over time. The findings have implications for theories of nostalgia and attachment and for managing unfulfilled needs in relationships.

OBJECTIVE People gather important social information from subtle nonverbal cues. Given that one's attachment style can meaningfully affect the quality of one's relationships, we investigated whether people could perceive men's and women's attachment styles from photos of their neutral faces. METHOD In two studies, we measured targets' attachment styles then asked participants (total N = 893) to judge the male and female targets' attachment anxiety and avoidance from photos of their neutral faces (total N = 331) and to report their own attachment anxiety and avoidance. RESULTS Participants detected men's attachment style from face photos significantly better than chance in an initial exploratory study and in a preregistered replication but did not consistently detect women's attachment style from their face photos. Moreover, participants' own attachment style biased these first impressions: Individuals with greater attachment anxiety viewed others as more anxiously attached. CONCLUSIONS People can detect some hints of unacquainted others' attachment styles from their faces but their own anxious attachment can bias these judgments.

Singlehood, defined as not being in a romantic relationship, is becoming increasingly common worldwide. Despite this, research on singlehood has not received remotely equivalent research attention as romantic relationships. Well-being research that has explicitly included singles has focused on whether coupled versus single people are more satisfied with their lives. However, these between-group comparisons have not attended to within-group variability among singles that can point to when and for whom singlehood is associated with thriving. In this review, we document findings from the emerging field of singlehood studies to highlight what is and is not known about factors that are associated with the well-being of single individuals from a within-group perspective. Our review examines (a) intrapersonal factors (characteristics of the individual), (b) interpersonal experiences (qualities of one’s social relationships and experiences), and (c) societal influences (features related to one’s broader social or cultural context) related to well-being in singlehood. We conclude by offering future directions for the conceptualization of and research on singlehood with the goal of promoting a thorough and inclusive perspective.

Sexual minorities high in attachment avoidance (i.e., discomfort with closeness) and attachment anxiety (i.e., fear of abandonment) tend to report greater internalized heterosexism. Yet, the causes of this link have not been fully explored. Some propose that insecure attachment schemas may make it difficult to form the types of social connections that can help alleviate internalized stigma (and vice versa: internalized heterosexism might make one avoid the types of relationships that would foster secure attachment). This study used structural equation modeling to test whether reduced connection to the LGBTQ+ community could help explain the link between insecure attachment and internalized heterosexism. Study 1 (n = 480) explored links between attachment avoidance, attachment anxiety, community connectedness and internalized heterosexism. Higher avoidance predicted lower connection which, in turn, predicted higher internalized heterosexism. Attachment avoidance's association with internalized heterosexism was fully explained by an indirect effect through connectedness. Conversely, attachment anxiety did not predict connectedness or internalized heterosexism. Study 2 (n = 447) replicated these findings. These results suggest low connectedness might help explain the association between attachment insecurity and internalized heterosexism, though this path might be specific to attachment avoidance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Five studies examined whether receiving gratitude expressions from a romantic partner can buffer insecurely attached individuals from experiencing low relationship satisfaction and commitment. In Study 1, the negative associations between attachment avoidance and both satisfaction and commitment were weaker among individuals who perceived that their partner expressed gratitude more frequently. The same pattern was found with attachment anxiety and satisfaction. Study 2 showed that among individuals who perceived high (vs. low) levels of gratitude expressions from the partner, both attachment dimensions were less strongly related to the belief that the partner is low in communal strength, which, in turn, was associated with greater satisfaction and commitment. In Studies 3-5, we examined whether perceptions or a partner's actual gratitude expression can have benefits on insecurely attached individuals' daily satisfaction. Our results indicated that perceived, rather than a partner's self-reported, gratitude expressions were critical to buffering insecurely attached individuals' daily dissatisfaction. Study 5 also provided evidence for long-term benefits of perceiving a partner's gratitude expressions on avoidantly attached individuals' relationship. Perceiving high levels of a partner's gratitude expressions on average enhanced avoidantly attached individuals' feelings of being cared for by the partner 3 months later, which were associated with greater satisfaction and commitment. Results from our meta-analysis indicated that benefits of perceiving a partner's gratitude expressions may be specific to buffering the negative effects of attachment avoidance on satisfaction. Overall, our findings highlight the powerful function of gratitude in insecurely attached individuals' romantic relationships. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Dating is widely thought of as a test phase for romantic relationships, during which new romantic partners carefully evaluate each other for long-term fit. However, this cultural narrative assumes that people are well equipped to reject poorly suited partners. In this article, we argue that humans are biased toward pro-relationship decisions—decisions that favor the initiation, advancement, and maintenance of romantic relationships. We first review evidence for a progression bias in the context of relationship initiation, investment, and breakup decisions. We next consider possible theoretical underpinnings—both evolutionary and cultural—that may explain why getting into a relationship is often easier than getting out of one, and why being in a less desirable relationship is often preferred over being in no relationship at all. We discuss potential boundary conditions that the phenomenon may have, as well as its implications for existing theoretical models of mate selection and relationship development.

Although some evidence exists to suggest that single (i.e., unpartnered) individuals are less sexually satisfied on average than are partnered individuals, it is unclear whether the variables correlating with each group’s sexual satisfaction are similar or different. This research sought to examine how desire for and actual engagement in solitary and partnered sexual activities are associated with both groups’ sexual satisfaction. We first conducted a preliminary study (n = 572) to test and refine existing measures of sexual satisfaction for applicability across relationship status. In two follow-up studies (N = 1,238), measurement invariance (across relationship status and gender) of the resulting 4-item sexual satisfaction scale was established. Further, results across the studies showed that for singles dyadic sexual desire was negatively related to sexual satisfaction, whereas no significant link was found with solitary desire. For individuals in romantic relationships, having higher sexual desire involving a partner and lower solitary desire were both associated with greater sexual satisfaction. When analyzing participants’ responses on the desired and actual frequency of engaging in specific sexual acts, we found that for both single and partnered individuals, frequent engagement in partnered acts was associated with greater sexual satisfaction. Wanting frequent engagement in partnered acts was associated with lower sexual satisfaction for both groups, but only if the current frequency of engaging in these acts was low. These findings suggest that at least during the COVID-19 pandemic, meeting desires for partnered sex plays an important role in maintaining a sexually satisfying life, regardless of one’s relationship status. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10508-021-02153-y.

Why do some people maintain stable feelings of commitment toward their partners, whereas others’ feelings wax and wane from day to day? The current paper draws insight from decision conflict research suggesting that individuals torn between decision options are particularly susceptible to attitude change. In three samples, we validated a stay/leave ambivalence scale to capture internal conflict about whether to remain in versus exit a relationship. In two dyadic daily experience studies, individuals who felt more ambivalent about their relationships experienced greater daily fluctuation in commitment and breakup contemplation compared to less ambivalent individuals. Ambivalent individuals’ relationship intentions were also more strongly tied to their daily experiences, such that they felt more motivated to stay on days with greater relationship positivity, and more motivated to leave on days with greater relationship negativity. We discuss implications of these results for ambivalent individuals, their partners, and our understanding of stay/leave decision processes.

Associations have been found between communal motives to feel warmly connected with others and perceiving similarities between self and others, presumably because perceived self-other similarity helps satisfy those motives. The current research examined the phenomenon in a novel and consequential context: Young adults’ perceived self-parent agreement regarding the values or preferences the young adult should prioritize in making life decisions. First, we describe an unregistered study in which 2,071 undergraduates from eight countries reported the qualities (e.g., attractive, outspoken) they prioritized when evaluating a potential spouse and the qualities they believed their parents would want them to prioritize. Second, we describe a registered study in which 1,141 undergraduates from five countries reported their basic values (e.g., security, hedonism) and the values they believed their parents would want them to prioritize. As hypothesized, stronger communal motives towards parents predicted greater self-parent agreement (regardless of the order in which students completed the measures). We also introduce a method for differentiating sources of individual differences in perceived agreement reflecting covariation between normative (average) and/or distinctive (non-normative) components of participants’ profiles of self- and other-ratings. Analyzing these distinct components of agreement suggested that communal motives were associated more strongly with students projecting their values onto their parents than with students introjecting parents’ values onto themselves, although both mechanisms—projection and introjection—likely played a role.

Affectionate touch is crucial for well-being. However, attachment avoidance is associated with negative attitudes toward touch. We tested two preregistered hypotheses about how attachment avoidance influences the association between touch in romantic couples and psychological well-being. We examined whether greater attachment avoidance is associated with a reduced link between touch and well-being, and/or whether reduced touch mediates the relationship between attachment avoidance and lower well-being. Across three studies, including two dyadic ones, we measured retrospective self-reports (Studies 1 and 2), laboratory observations (Study 2), and daily experiences (Study 3) of touch. Touch and well-being were positively associated, and attachment avoidance was associated with lower well-being and less frequent touch. Touch was associated with greater well-being regardless of level of attachment avoidance, and less frequent touch mediated the negative association between attachment avoidance and well-being in most analyses. This underscores the importance of touch, even for those valuing distance and autonomy.

Prospection (mentally simulating future events) generates emotionally-charged mental images that guide social decision-making. Positive and negative social expectancies—imagining new social interactions to be rewarding versus threatening—are core components of social approach and avoidance motivation, respectively. Interindividual differences in such positive and negative future-related cognitions may be underpinned by distinct neuroanatomical substrates. Here, we asked 100 healthy adults to vividly imagine themselves in a novel self-relevant event that was ambiguous with regards to possible social acceptance or rejection. During this task we measured participants’ expectancies for social reward (anticipated feelings of social connection) or threat (anticipated feelings of rejection). On a separate day they underwent structural MRI; voxel-based morphometry was used to explore the relation between social reward and threat expectancies and regional grey matter volumes (rGMV). Increased rGMV in key default-network regions involved in prospection, socio-emotional cognition, and subjective valuation, including ventromedial prefrontal cortex, correlated with both higher social reward and lower social threat expectancies. In contrast, social threat expectancies uniquely correlated with rGMV of regions involved in social attention (posterior superior temporal sulcus, pSTS) and interoception (somatosensory cortex). These findings provide novel insight into the neurobiology of future-oriented cognitive-affective processes critical to adaptive social functioning.

Despite the worldwide increase in single-person households, little research has examined what factors contribute to a satisfying single life. We used three data sets ( N = 3,890) to examine how satisfaction with sexual and social aspects of life are linked with single people’s perceptions of marriage and singlehood. Our results suggest that higher sexual satisfaction is associated with less desire to marry (Study 1), stronger beliefs that unmarried people can be happy without marriage (Study 2), and greater satisfaction with singlehood and less desire for a partner (Study 3). All effects in Studies 1 and 3 remained significant controlling for life satisfaction and sexual frequency. Satisfying friendships were associated with variables related to satisfaction with singlehood but not variables related to desire for a partner, whereas no effect was found for satisfaction with family. This study highlights the potential importance of maintaining a satisfying sex life in people’s satisfaction with singlehood.

Prospection (mentally simulating future events) generates emotionally charged mental images that guide social decision-making. Positive and negative social expectancies – imagining new social interactions to be rewarding vs. threatening – are core components of social approach and avoidance motivation, respectively. Stable individual differences in such positive and negative future-related cognitions may be underpinned by distinct neuroanatomical substrates. Here, we asked 100 healthy adults to vividly imagine themselves in a novel self-relevant social scenario that was ambiguous with regards to possible social acceptance or rejection. During this task we measured their expectancies for social reward (e.g. anticipated feelings of social connection) or threat (e.g. anticipated feelings of rejection). On a separate day they underwent structural MRI; voxel-based morphometry (VBM) was used to explore the relation between their social reward and threat expectancies and regional grey matter volumes (rGMV). Increased rGMV in key regions involved in prospection, subjective valuation and emotion regulation (including ventromedial prefrontal cortex), correlated with both higher social reward and lower social threat expectancies. In contrast, social threat expectancies were uniquely linked with rGMV of regions involved in social attention (posterior superior temporal sulcus) and interoception (somatosensory cortex). These findings provide novel insight into the neurobiology of future-oriented cognitive-affective processes critical to adaptive social functioning.

To examine cultural, gender, and parent-child differences in partner preferences, in eight countries undergraduates (n=2,071) and their parents (n=1,851) ranked the desirability of qualities in someone the student might marry. Despite sizable cultural differences-especially between Southeast Asian and Western countries-participants generally ranked kind/understanding (reflecting interpersonal communion) highest, and intelligent and healthy (reflecting mental/physical agency) among the top four. Students valued exciting, attractive partners more and healthy, religious partners less than parents did; comparisons with rankings by youth in 1984 (i.e., from the parents' generation) suggested cohort effects cannot explain most parent-child disagreements. As evolutionary psychology predicts, participants prioritized wives' attractiveness and homemaker skills and husbands' education and breadwinner skills; but as sociocultural theory predicts, variations across countries/decades in gendered spousal/in-law preferences mirrored socioeconomic gender differences. Collectively, the results suggest individuals consider their social roles/circumstances when envisioning their ideal spouse/in-law, which has implications for how human's partner-appraisal capabilities evolved.

The decision to end a romantic relationship can have a life-changing impact on the partner as well as the self. Research on close relationships has thus far focused on self-interested reasons why people choose to stay in their relationship versus leave. However, a growing body of research on decision-making and prosociality shows that when people make decisions that impact others, they take those others’ feelings and perspectives into consideration. In the present research, we tested the prediction that people make stay/leave decisions prosocially, such that consideration for their romantic partner’s feelings can discourage people from ending their relationships. In Study 1, a total of 1,348 participants in romantic relationships were tracked over a 10-week period. Study 2 was a preregistered replication and extension of Study 1, in which 500 participants contemplating a breakup were followed over a 2-month period. Both studies showed that the more dependent people believed their partner was on the relationship, the less likely they were to initiate a breakup. These findings held above and beyond a variety of self-focused variables (e.g., investment model components; Rusbult, Martz, & Agnew, 1998). These results suggest that people can be motivated to stay in relatively unfulfilling relationships for the sake of their romantic partner. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved)

The number of people who remain single for long periods of time is sizeable and growing in the Western world, yet they are largely ignored in psychological theory and research. In this article, we review psychological and sociological evidence that long-term singles are a heterogeneous group of individuals, outline an attachment-theoretical model of long-term singlehood, and review direct and indirect empirical evidence suggestive of at least three distinct subgroups of long-term singles: (a) singlehood due to attachment-system deactivation, (b) singlehood due to attachment-system hyperactivation, and (c) singlehood as a secure personal choice. Our aim is to highlight long-term singles as a population that merits scientific study and to provide a foundation on which future research can build.

When avoidantly attached individuals are simultaneously high in attachment anxiety, they are inclined to experience strong internal conflicts between seeking and avoiding closeness. This research examined whether the extent to which closeness, assessed as the inclusion of other in the self (IOS), is associated with greater commitment varies within individuals high in attachment avoidance as a result of differences in ambivalence toward maintaining the relationship. In two studies ( N1 = 1,604, N2 = 2,271), we found that the positive association between IOS and commitment was significantly weaker when attachment avoidance was combined with high (vs. low) attachment anxiety. In Study 2, we found lingering relational ambivalence even at high levels of IOS among individuals simultaneously high in attachment avoidance and anxiety, which in turn was related to relatively low commitment. Our findings highlight the role of relational ambivalence in avoidants’ relationship functioning and the need to examine the interplay of the two attachment dimensions.

Social exclusion has been shown to influence sensitivity to physical pain. Attachment theory suggests a primary response to rejection should be seeking out the company of a close other. Based on this prediction, we hypothesized that the presence of an attachment figure versus a stranger following rejection would permit acknowledgement of distress and thus stronger reports of physical pain. Healthy participants reported their pain sensitivity before receiving exclusion or inclusion feedback in an online chat. Participants were then randomly assigned to have access to their attachment figure or a stranger and had pain sensitivity measured again. As predicted, excluded participants who had access to their attachment figure evidenced heightened pain sensitivity (lower pain threshold and tolerance), whereas those who sat with a stranger evidenced some degree of a decrease in pain sensitivity (higher pain tolerance). These data may shed light on the impact social ties can have during painful situations.

The present research examined the subjective experience of deciding whether or not to end a romantic relationship. In Study 1, open-ended reasons for wanting to stay in a relationship versus leave were provided by three samples and categorized by trained coders, resulting in 27 distinct reasons for wanting to stay (e.g., emotional intimacy, investment) and 23 reasons for wanting to leave (e.g., conflict, breach of trust). In Study 2, we examined endorsement of specific stay/leave reasons among participants currently contemplating either a breakup or a divorce. Most stay and leave reasons mapped onto global ratings of satisfaction and commitment. Attachment anxiety was associated with stronger endorsement of many reasons for wanting to both stay and leave. Further, many participants were simultaneously motivated to both stay in their relationships and leave, suggesting that ambivalence is a common experience for those who are thinking about ending their relationships.

Past research on individuals high in attachment avoidance has pointed to these individuals being relatively uninterested in intimacy. However, a small body of literature suggests that if presented with warmth and positive feedback, avoidant individuals will respond positively to intimacy to an even greater extent than secure individuals. The goal of the present study was to examine the replicability of the findings of one such study (MacDonald & Borsook, 2010), and additionally explore avoidant individuals' non-verbal responses to social warmth. After completing an attachment style questionnaire, participants completed a relationship closeness induction task with a confederate who was assigned to behave in either a warm or a cold manner. Participants then completed a closeness scale and filmed a video greeting for their “partner” (the confederate). The results did not replicate those of MacDonald and Borsook (2010), and instead suggested that highly avoidant participants felt less close to socially warm others than low avoidant individuals did. Possible reasons for the failure to replicate are discussed, as are the similarities in how avoidant individuals respond to social reward and attachment threat.

Social ties are critical to human health and well-being; thus, it is important to gain a better understanding of the neurobiological mechanisms involved in the development of interpersonal closeness. Prior research indicates that endogenous opioids may play a role in social affiliation by elaborating feelings of social connection and warmth; however, it is not currently known whether opioids mediate affiliative behavior and emerging feelings of closeness in humans at the relationship initiation stage. This randomized, double-blind study examined opioidergic processes in the context of a naturalistic, face-to-face social interaction. Eighty pairs of unacquainted participants (final N = 159 due to removal of one dyad member from analysis) received either 50 mg of the opioid receptor antagonist naltrexone or placebo prior to completing a closeness-building exercise centered on escalating self-disclosure (sharing of personal information about the self). Compared to the placebo group, naltrexone participants held lower social reward expectations prior to the interaction, engaged in less intimacy-fostering behavior (self-disclosure) during the interaction, and reported wanting less closeness with their partner. Feelings of social connection were not significantly lower in the naltrexone group. However, placebo participants experienced improvements in mood after the closeness-building task whereas naltrexone participants did not. These findings suggest that endogenous opioids may contribute to behavioral, affective, and motivational processes related to the development of initial closeness.

Attachment anxiety is a form of attachment insecurity characterized by chronic worries about rejection and need for reassurance. Given the critical role a sense of security plays in maintaining healthy relationships, individuals high in attachment anxiety tend to struggle in romantic relationships, which carries serious implications for their broader physical and psychological well-being. Nevertheless, an individual's attachment anxiety continues to change throughout life and can be downregulated by later relationship environments. In this research, we used 7-year longitudinal data (n = 2,057) to examine 1 potential predictor of declines in attachment anxiety in an established romantic relationship: perceiving gratitude from a partner. Random intercept cross-lagged panel analyses supported our prediction that perceiving higher than typical levels of gratitude from a romantic partner was linked with reduced attachment anxiety at that time and, importantly, the following year. These results were independent of the individual's fluctuations in global relationship satisfaction, suggesting the unique power of gratitude. Our findings provide strong evidence that later interpersonal environments can indeed shape an individual's attachment anxiety. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Do people have a "type" when it comes to their romantic partners' personalities? In the present research, we used data from a 9-y longitudinal study in Germany and examined the similarity between an individual's ex- and current partners using the partners' self-reported personality profiles. Based on the social accuracy model, our analyses distinguished similarity between partners that was attributable to similarity to an average person (normative similarity) and resemblance to the target participant himself/herself (self-partner similarity) to more precisely examine similarity from partner to partner (distinctive similarity). The results revealed a significant degree of distinctive partner similarity, suggesting that there may indeed be a unique type of person each individual ends up with. We also found that distinctive partner similarity was weaker for people high in extraversion or openness to experience, suggesting that these individuals may be less likely to be in a relationship with someone similar to their ex-partner (although the individual difference effects were not mirrored in an alternative analytic approach). These findings provide evidence for stability in distinctive partner personality and have important implications for predicting future partnering behaviors and actions in romantic relationships.

Adult attachment affects close bonds, including bonds with fictional characters, but does it also influence the level of engagement with fictional worlds? This article aims to build on previous research on how attachment relates to narrative transportation. In Study 1, attachment anxiety, but not attachment avoidance, predicted a greater tendency to become transported into narratives, even after controlling for broader personality traits related to attachment. In Study 2, attachment anxiety again predicted a greater tendency to engage in narratives but only at high levels of attachment avoidance. In Study 3, this interaction between attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance in predicting narrative transportation was again observed when transportation was measured immediately after viewing a specific narrative.

Decisions about who to date are increasingly being made while viewing a large pool of dating prospects simultaneously or sequentially (e.g., online dating). The present research explores how the order in which dating prospects are evaluated affects the role in dating decisions of a variable crucial to relationship success — partner responsiveness. In Study 1, participants viewed dating profiles varying in physical attractiveness and responsiveness. Some participants viewed responsive profiles first whereas others viewed unresponsive profiles first. Results revealed that responsive targets were rated more favorably following exposure to unresponsive targets, regardless of level of attractiveness. Study 2 specifically targeted how contrast effects affect romantic evaluations of a physically unattractive, yet responsive, target. Results again revealed that unattractive, responsive targets were viewed more favorably after exposure to unresponsive dating prospects, regardless of these unresponsive prospects' physical attractiveness. These results highlight the importance of the context in which dating decisions are made.

Previous research has conflated different types of casual sex, potentially obscuring patterns that may vary across categories. Using data from two large online community samples, we examined whether differences in attachment orientation predict experiences in casual sex encounters (i.e., One-Night Stand, Booty Call, Fuck Buddies, Friends With Benefits). We construed these encounters as ranging on levels of intimacy, and hypothesized that anxious individuals would most enjoy more intimate forms of casual sex and avoidant individuals would most enjoy less intimate forms. We asked individuals engaging in casual sex about their most recent sexual encounter. Results suggest that anxious and avoidant individuals report lower well-being in casual sex contexts relative to more secure individuals; however, the specific type of encounter moderated these associations. Regardless of the type of encounter, anxious individuals experience fewer orgasms. Attachment orientation predicted motivations for engaging in, and expectations for, casual sex relationships. For avoidant individuals, physical pleasure during sex is contingent on the type of encounter (reporting the highest levels of physical pleasure in Fuck Buddies encounters). This study is the first to provide evidence that the type of casual sexual encounter influences how anxious and avoidant individuals experience sex, both emotionally and physically.

Rates of singlehood are increasing rapidly in the Western World. In the current paper, we discuss the phenomenon of long-term singlehood from an attachment perspective, outline three distinct sub-groups of singles (anxious, avoidant, and secure), and demonstrate the utility of these groups by highlighting their unique characteristics and possible life outcomes, including factors that may moderate these outcomes. Finally, we offer suggestions for future research to enhance our understanding of this vastly under-researched population.

OBJECTIVE: This research investigated whether people who fear being single have a more difficult time letting go of ex-partners following a romantic breakup. METHOD: Data were collected in a cross-sectional study (N = 209, 64% women, Mage = 30 years old) as well as a one-month daily experience study of individuals who just went through a romantic breakup (N = 117, 44% women, Mage = 27 years old). RESULTS: Findings from both studies revealed that those with stronger fear of being single (Spielmann et al., 2013) reported greater longing for their ex-partners. Pre- to post-breakup analyses revealed that fear of being single increased after a breakup, regardless of who initiated the breakup. Within-day analyses revealed that longing for an ex-partner and attempts to renew the relationship were greater on days with stronger fear of being single. Lagged-day analyses provided support for the conclusion that fear of being single increased longing and renewal attempts over time, but longing and renewal attempts did not influence fear of being single. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that fear of being single is a particularly useful construct for understanding the romantic detachment process. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved. Language: en

Social psychologists theorize that individuals seek connection following rejection. However, accepting connection from a low status other may imply that one is of similarly low status, which may call into question one’s prospects for future acceptance. Thus, we hypothesized that rejection would lead individuals to distance themselves from a low status other even when the low status other is accepting. In two studies, single, heterosexual, female participants received simultaneous acceptance/rejection feedback from one physically attractive man and one less attractive man. As predicted, rejected individuals derogated their rejecters as indicated by a decreased desire for affiliation and more negative evaluations. Moreover, participants rejected by the attractive man also derogated the unattractive man even when the unattractive man offered acceptance. These data may shed light on specific circumstances under which rejection leads to antisocial behavior.

The anchoring effect has been replicated so extensively that it is generally thought to be ubiquitous. However, anchoring has primarily been tested in domains in which people are motivated to reach accurate conclusions rather than biased conclusions. Is the anchoring effect robust even when the anchors are threatening? In three studies, participants made a series of probability judgments about their own futures paired with either optimistic anchors (e.g., “Do you think that the chances that your current relationship will last a lifetime are more or less than 95%?”), pessimistic anchors (e.g., “more or less than 10%?”), or no anchors. A fourth study experimentally manipulated motivation to ignore the anchor with financial incentives. Across studies, anchors that implied high probabilities of unwanted events occurring were ineffective. Together, these studies suggest that anchoring has an important boundary condition: Personally threatening anchors are ignored as a result of motivated reasoning processes.