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Background: Augmented reality has been widely applied in various fields, and its benefits in language learning have been increasingly recognized. However, the investigation of effective learning behaviours and processes in augmented reality learning environments, taking into account temporality and analysis of differences in learning behaviours between learning achievements from the perspective of learning strategies, is still a topic that requires further research. Objectives: The goal of this research is to explore effective learning processes in AR language learning environments and learning behavioural patterns of learners with different performance levels via LA taking into account temporality. Methods: We used the learning application designed and developed in previous studies to understand the learning process and behavioural patterns of acquiring Japanese compound verbs with augmented reality. Lag sequential analyses were conducted to analyse the learning behavioural transitions using learning data. Additionally, frequent sequences were analysed using frequent sequence mining to compare the learning behavioural patterns of learners with different learning performances. Results and Conclusions: We investigated the learning process and behavioural patterns and discussed the language learning strategies employed in the augmented reality learning environment. The results indicated that learners primarily performed strategies of performed expressions, recombining, and structured reviewing in AR compound verb learning activities. Furthermore, the results revealed the different types of strategies applied by different learning performance learners, whereby the low group learners used the least variety of strategies, and the middle and high group learners employed repeating and deductive reasoning strategies that were not followed by the low group.

The aim of this study was to examine the effects of Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) designed according to the First Principles of Instruction (FPI). A 15-h Japanese CLIL course was implemented. A total of 16 university students attended the course and data were collected from multiple sources, including learning tests, questionnaire feedback, and dialogues in group discussions, were collected and examined. Analysis showed that students' learning outcomes, including basic Japanese proficiency, intercultural communication content, and writing skills, were statistically significantly improved. Students had a high level of awareness of the elements of FPI designed in the course. In addition, all the FPI elements had a positive impact on basic Japanese proficiency except for the application element: the problem-centered, application, and integration elements positively impacted intercultural communication content and writing skills. The results show that students displayed individual differences in using the worksheet to summarize their writing ideas. Students spent most of the time in the group discussions in their native language. Even when Japanese was used, individual Japanese words were used rather than whole sentences in most cases. The results of the quantitative and qualitative analyses showed that the use of problem-centered theory FPI had a positive impact on the design of the CLIL. However, attention is needed to students' individual differences and the guidance of students in applying basic language knowledge in problem-centered learning activities. Finally, it notes points that should be considered when designing CLIL in the future.