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Background: Preliminary studies have reported promising results for the utility of gallium-68 (Ga-68) citrate positron emission tomography-computed tomography (PET-CT) for infection imaging. This technique offers reduced radiation dose to patients, shorter time between injection and imaging and reduced time for image acquisition compared to the 'gold standard' nuclear imaging technique: gallium-67 (Ga-67) citrate scintigraphy., Aims: To compare the two imaging modalities to ascertain whether Ga-68 citrate PET-CT is of equivalent diagnostic efficacy for bone and joint infection or pyrexia of unknown origin (PUO) and to assess image quality and reporter confidence., Methods: Patients with PUO and suspected bone or joint infection underwent Ga-67 citrate scintigraphy and Ga-68 citrate PET-CT. Participants were followed up for 3 months to record subsequent treatment, investigations and outcome., Results: 60 patients were recruited to this multicentre prospective study: 32 for bone and joint infection, 28 for PUO. The results show a sensitivity of 81% for Ga-67 citrate scintigraphy and 69% for Ga-68 citrate PET-CT, a specificity of 79% for Ga-67 citrate and 67% for Ga-68 citrate and were concordant for 76% of the participants. The reporting physician confidence was significantly lower for Ga-68 citrate (P < 0.05), frequently due to prominent physiologic blood pool activity adjacent to the site of infection., Conclusion: The sensitivity and specificity of Ga-68 citrate PET-CT were found to be consistently lower than Ga-67 citrate scintigraphy. Additionally, due to the insufficient level of confidence of the reporting physicians for the Ga-68 citrate PET-CT, this modality could not currently be recommended to replace Ga-67 citrate scintigraphy for routine clinical use., (© 2019 Royal Australasian College of Physicians.)

Rationale, Aims and Objectives: There is considerable uncertainty around the cost-effectiveness of interventions for preventing secondary falls in older people presenting to emergency departments (ED). The objective was to complete an economic evaluation of a brief educational ED intervention aimed at preventing falls in older people post discharge., Methods: A net cost analysis was completed from the health system perspective, using data from a controlled clinical trial, where an education intervention was compared to standard care. Patients aged 65 and older presenting to the ED with any diagnosis were enrolled. The costs, using Australian dollars (A$) at 2015 values, included resources required for the intervention and any health care cost incurred in the 6-month follow-up period (time horizon). Cost data were sourced through institutional billing records and liaison with the patient and their general practitioner. Mean costs and differences were analysed through nonparametric bootstrapping., Results: The total costs in the control group (n = 201) were A$1 576 496 compared to A$1 292 130 in the intervention group (n = 211). The mean net cost per patient was A$7749 and A$6187 (P = 0.68) respectively resulting in a mean difference of A$1580 per patient in the intervention group (95% CI: A$-2806 to A$6150). Patients who presented to the ED with a fall diagnosis were reviewed through subgroup analysis. Total costs for patients who presented with a fall in the control group (n = 69) were A$708 995 compared to A$512 874 in the intervention group (n = 97). The mean net cost per patient was A$10 326 and A$5343 respectively (P = 0.33) with an overall saving of A$4624 per patient in the intervention group (95% CI: A$-2868 to A$15 426)., Conclusions: A brief intervention had no net cost benefit across the whole study population, but is more cost effective in older people presenting to the ED with a fall., (© 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.)

Introduction: Automated insulin delivery (also known as closed loop, or artificial pancreas) has shown potential to improve glycaemic control and quality of life in people with type 1 diabetes (T1D). Automated insulin delivery devices incorporate an insulin pump with continuous glucose monitoring(CGM) and an algorithm, and adjust insulin in real time. This study aims to establish the safety and efficacy of a hybrid closed-loop (HCL) system in a long-term outpatient trial in people with T1D aged 12 -<25 years of age, and compare outcomes with standard therapy for T1D as used in the contemporary community., Methods and Analysis: This is an open-label, multicentre, 6-month, randomised controlled home trial to test the MiniMed Medtronic 670G system (HCL) in people with T1D aged 12 -<25 years, and compare it to standard care (multiple daily injections or continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion (CSII), with or without CGM). Following a run-in period including diabetes and carbohydrate counting education, dosage optimisation and baseline glucose control data collection, participants are randomised to either HCL or to continue on their current treatment regimen. The primary aim of the study is to compare the proportion of time spent in target sensor glucose range (3.9-10.0 mmol/L) on HCL versus standard therapy. Secondary aims include a range of glucose control parameters, psychosocial measures, health economic measures, biomarker status, user/technology interactions and healthcare professional expectations. Analysis will be intention to treat. A study in adults with an aligned design is being conducted in parallel to this trial., Ethics and Dissemination: Ethics committee permissions were gained from respective institutional review boards. The findings of the study will provide high-quality evidence on the role of HCL in clinical practice., Competing Interests: Competing interests: MB reports receiving speaker honoraria from Medtronic. DNO reports receiving speaker honoraria and research grants from Medtronic., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2018. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Introduction: Between 2009 and 2012, 68 Ga-somatostatin analogue PET-CT progressively replaced 111 In-octreotide scintigraphy for imaging neuroendocrine tumours in WA public hospitals due to published literature demonstrating improved diagnostic accuracy and increased availability. Despite significantly improved sensitivity and specificity, 68 Ga-somatostatin analogue PET is currently unfunded in Australia. This study sought to undertake cost analysis of the two modalities in a public hospital setting and to compare them with regard to patient factors such as imaging time and radiation dose., Methods: This analysis was based on retrospective clinical data from 95 111 In-octreotide scintigraphies performed in 2007 and 2008 at Sir Charles Gairdner (SCGH) and Royal Perth (RPH) hospitals and 219 68 Ga-somatostatin analogue PET-CT studies performed in 2013 at SCGH. Whole body effective radiation dose was derived from the radiopharmaceutical and low-dose CT scan. The cost analysis included radiopharmaceutical and imaging costs., Results: The median imaging time for an 111 In-octreotide scintigraphy was 152 min at SCGH, 100 min at RPH and 20 min for a 68 Ga-somatostatin analogue PET-CT scan. The mean effective radiation dose for 111 In-octreotide scintigraphy was 18.1 mSv at SCGH and 13.8 mSv at RPH. The effective dose for 68 Ga-somatostatin analogue PET-CT was 8.7-10.8 mSv. The average cost of  68 Ga-somatostatin analogue PET-CT was four times less than 111 In-octreotide scintigraphy., Conclusion: 68 Ga-somatostatin analogue PET-CT is not only more accurate than 111 In-octreotide scintigraphy, this study has also shown that it is significantly less expensive, delivers a lower radiation dose to patients and requires less imaging time for patients and staff. 68 Ga-somatostatin PET-CT provides an important combination of both reduced cost and improved clinical care for patients., (© 2017 The Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Radiologists.)

Background: Concerns about pathology testing such as the value provided by new tests and the potential for inappropriate utilization have led to a greater need to assess costs and benefits. Economic evaluations are a formal method of analyzing costs and benefits, yet for pathology tests, questions remain about the scope and quality of the economic evidence., Objective: To describe the extent and quality of published evidence provided by economic evaluations of pathology tests from 2010 to 2015., Methods: Economic evaluations relating to pathology tests from 2010 to 2015 were reviewed. Eight databases were searched for published studies, and details recorded for the country, clinical focus, type of testing, and consideration of sensitivity, specificity, and false test results. The reporting quality of studies was assessed using the Consolidated Health Economic Evaluation Reporting Standards checklist and cost-effectiveness ratios were analyzed for publication bias., Results: We found 356 economic evaluations of pathology tests, most of which regarded developed countries. The most common economic evaluations were cost-utility analyses and the most common clinical focus was infectious diseases. More than half of the studies considered sensitivity and specificity, but few studies considered the impact of false test results. The average Consolidated Health Economic Evaluation Reporting Standards checklist score was 17 out of 24. Cost-utility ratios were commonly less than $10,000/quality-adjusted life-year or more than $200,000/quality-adjusted life-year., Conclusions: The number of economic evaluations of pathology tests has increased in recent years, but the rate of increase has plateaued. Furthermore, the quality of studies in the past 5 years was highly variable, and there is some question of publication bias in reporting cost-effectiveness ratios., (Copyright © 2017 International Society for Pharmacoeconomics and Outcomes Research (ISPOR). Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Introduction: Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is an incurable neuromuscular disorder of childhood. Healthcare, caregiving, and other resource needs of affected individuals are thought to be substantial; however, the economic burden associated with DMD has not yet been assessed specifically in Australia., Methods: Australian households with a child with DMD were asked to complete a cross-sectional survey. Data were collected on annual resource utilization including hospital and medical services, equipment, home modifications, informal care, and working days lost., Results: Mean healthcare costs were found to be $10,046 Australian dollars per affected individual and were markedly higher than average Australian health expenditures at each age group. The mean total cost was $46,700 (median $32,300), with healthcare costs contributing 22% of total costs., Conclusions: The annual economic cost of DMD was found to be high, reflecting a significant socioeconomic burden, especially in boys who reach adulthood, where household resource use and caregiving burden is highest. Muscle Nerve 53: 877-884, 2016., (© 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Background: Cardiovascular disease is the most frequent cause of death in Australia, with an associated cost burden of 11% of Australian annual health expenditure of which 40% is for hospital admissions. We investigated health outcomes and the components of hospital expenditure in the two years after an atherothrombotic disease admission to a tertiary hospital in an Australian setting., Methods: Using data linkage we analysed two years of hospitalisation data and death records of all men and women aged 35-84 years with an admission to a Western Australian tertiary hospital for atherothrombotic disease in 2007. Costs were identified by matching the Australian refined diagnostic related group on the admission records to the published schedules of public and private hospital costs for the period of interest, and converted to 2013 Australian dollars., Results: Of 6172 patients studied (74% coronary, 20% cerebrovascular, 6% peripheral), 783 (13%) died during follow-up and 174 of these were in hospital case-fatalities at index. Thirty-two percent of patients (n = 1965) accounted for 3172 readmissions to hospital with one in three having multiple hospitalisations. The hazard ratio of atherothrombotic disease readmission was 1.45 (95% CI 1.27, 1.66) in those with more than one vascular territory affected compared to those with only one territory affected after controlling for age, sex, comorbidity, admission type, procedures, and episode length of stay. The total index plus 2-year admission cost for atherothrombotic disease was calculated at $101 million; $71 million for index, and $30 million for readmissions., Conclusions: Among patients hospitalised with atherothrombotic disease, the cost of related rehospitalisations within 24 months is almost a third of the total. Much of the readmission costs fell within the first year. Whether readmissions and cost associated with atherothrombotic disease can be lowered through secondary prevention measures requires further investigation.

Aim: To assess the economic impact of increased nursing hours of care on health outcomes in adult teaching hospitals in Perth, Western Australia., Background: Advancing technology and increased availability of treatment interventions are increasing demand for health care while the downturn in world economies has increased demand for greater efficiency. Nurse managers must balance nurse staffing to optimize care and provide efficiencies., Design: This longitudinal study involved the retrospective analysis of a cohort of multi-day stay patients admitted to adult teaching hospitals., Methods: Hospital morbidity and staffing data from September 2000 until June 2004, obtained in 2010 from a previous study, were used to analyse nursing-sensitive outcomes pre- and post-implementation of the Nurse Hours per Patient Day staffing method, which remains in place today. The cost of the intervention comprised increased nursing hours following implementation of the staffing method., Results: The number of nursing-sensitive outcomes was 1357 less than expected post-implementation and included 155 fewer 'failure to rescue' events. The 1202 other nursing-sensitive outcomes prevented were 'surgical wound infection', 'pulmonary failure', 'ulcer, gastritis', 'upper gastrointestinal bleed', and 'cardiac arrest'. One outcome, pneumonia, showed an increase of 493. Analysis of life years gained was based on the failure to rescue events prevented and the total life years gained was 1088. The cost per life year gained was AUD$8907., Conclusion: The implementation of the Nurse Hours per Patient Day staffing method was cost-effective when compared with thresholds of interventions commonly accepted in Australia., (© 2013 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.)

Objective: This study of equity and access characterises admissions for coronary, cerebrovascular and peripheral arterial disease by hospital type (rural, tertiary and non-tertiary metropolitan) in a representative Australian population., Methods: We conducted a descriptive analysis using data linkage of all residents aged 35-84 years hospitalised in Western Australia with a primary diagnosis for an atherothrombotic event in 2007. We compared sociodemographic and clinical features by atherothrombotic territory and hospital type., Results: There were 11670 index admissions for atherothrombotic disease in 2007 of which 46% were in tertiary hospitals, 41% were in non-tertiary metropolitan hospitals and 13% were in rural hospitals. Coronary heart disease comprised 72% of admissions, followed by cerebrovascular disease (19%) and peripheral arterial disease (9%). Comparisons of socioeconomic disadvantage reveal that for those admitted to rural hospitals, more than one-third were in the most disadvantaged quintile, compared with one-fifth to any metropolitan hospital., Conclusions: Significant differences in demographic characteristics were evident between Western Australian tertiary and non-tertiary hospitals for patients hospitalised for atherothrombotic disease. Notably, the differences among tertiary, non-tertiary metropolitan and rural hospitals were related to socioeconomic disadvantage. This has implications for atherothrombotic healthcare provision and the generalisation of research findings from studies conducted exclusively in the tertiary metropolitan hospitals.

Objective: To determine the effects on cardiovascular outcomes and costs of a delay in subsidising statins for Australian normolipidaemic diabetics aged 60-79 years that occurred between 2002 and 2006., Methods: The Australian normolipidaemic diabetic population aged 60-79 with no history of coronary heart disease (CHD) or stroke was estimated from the Australian Bureau of Statistics (National Health Survey 2001 and 2002 population estimates). The number of CHD and stroke events expected to have occurred between 2002 and 2006 were estimated from the United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study Risk Engine. The proportion of these events that may have been prevented by the use of statins in this population was estimated using risk reduction values from the Heart Protection Study., Results: The target population was estimated as 186,501. In this population, 3,205 (95% confidence interval (CI) 2567, 4003) CHD events, of which 1,456 (95% CI 908, 2334) would have been fatal, could have been prevented if all patients had been treated with statins. In addition, 2,150 (95% CI 1515, 3052) ischaemic strokes could have been prevented. The net cost to the government would have been about $136 million per year over the four-year period., Conclusions: Delays in the adoption of statins on the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme based on evidence available at the time for specific populations may have led to preventable morbidity and mortality. Implications The effects of delays in translating new evidence into public subsidies for drugs are measurable and are likely to be significant., (© 2012 The Authors. ANZJPH © 2012 Public Health Association of Australia.)

Objective: To assess the direct annual health care costs for children and adolescents with Down syndrome in Western Australia and to explore the variation in health care use including respite, according to age and disease profile., Study Design: Population-based data were derived from a cross-sectional questionnaire that was distributed to all families who had a child with Down syndrome as old as 25 years of age in Western Australia., Results: Seventy-three percent of families (363/500) responded to the survey. Mean annual cost was $4209 Australian dollars ($4287 US dollars) for direct health care including hospital, medical, pharmaceutical, respite and therapy, with a median cost of $1701. Overall, costs decreased with age. The decline in costs was a result of decreasing use of hospital, medical, and therapy costs with age. Conversely, respite increased with age and also with dependency. Health care costs were greater in all age groups with increasing dependency and for an earlier or current diagnosis of congenital heart disease. Annual health care costs did not vary with parental income, including cost of respite., Conclusions: Direct health care costs for children with Down syndrome decrease with age to approximate population costs, although costs of respite show an increasing trend., (Copyright © 2011 Mosby, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Aim: The aim of the study was to assess the perceived value of genetic testing for congenital deafness in families attending a clinical genetic outpatients department at a children's hospital. The major testing objective was to provide information regarding deafness etiology, although families were advised that changes in treatment as a result of the test were unlikely. Using a 'willingness-to-pay' approach in the form of a questionnaire developed by Ryan et al. [J Med Genet 2003;40:1-5], parents were surveyed for their attitudes and willingness to pay for genetic testing., Results: Forty-nine families provided data for analysis, representing 56% of clinic attendances throughout the period. Most of the parents were themselves unaffected by hearing loss (93%) and none were deaf, although almost a quarter (22%) reported a family member born deaf. Parents considered the major benefit gained from testing was to better achieve clarity of understanding arising from discussion and the possible ascertainment of etiology. The average sum parents were willing to pay for genetic testing was 200 Australian dollars (AUD, 2007) or approximately 123 euros (EUR), ranging from 150 to 295 AUD according to ability to pay (as measured by gross income). However, the amount that even the highest income level were willing to pay underestimated the full economic cost of genetic testing., Conclusion: Genetic testing for deafness is highly valued by affected families despite the current limited overall expectation of definitive genetic diagnosis or changes in treatment. Parents considered the major benefits to be a better understanding of congenital deafness and the potential for assignment of causality., (Copyright 2009 S. Karger AG, Basel.)

The increased presence of consultant staff should theoretically lead to better outcomes in emergency departments (EDs). A retrospective observational study was conducted in a tertiary paediatric emergency department (PED) over a 10-year period documenting trends in percentage of children admitted, complaints to the department and average waiting times. Consultant numbers increased from 2.6 to 6.2 full time equivalent staff between 2000 and 2004. Other staffing numbers were essentially unchanged. All parameters examined improved coincident with increasing consultant numbers. The percentage of children admitted decreased by 27%, complaints fell by 41% and the average waiting time by 15%. The yearly cost of an additional 3.6 consultants (2005) was $A1,003,490 with net saving to the hospital of over $A9.48 million. The provision of additional consultant medical staff in a PED coincided with a decrease in the percentage of children admitted, complaints to the department and average waiting times, and was cost effective.

Background: Exacerbations requiring hospital admission for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) contribute to a decline in health status and are costly to the community. Long-term trends in admissions and associated outcomes are difficult to establish because of frequent readmissions, high case fatality and potential diagnostic transfer between COPD and asthma. The Western Australian Data Linkage System provides a unique opportunity to examine admissions for patients with COPD over the long term., Method: Nineteen years of hospital morbidity data, based on International Classification of Diseases-9 criteria were extracted from the Western Australian Data Linkage System (1980-1998) and merged with mortality records to examine trends in hospital admissions for COPD., Results: The rate of hospital admissions for COPD has declined overall and the rate of first presentation declined in men and remained constant in women. The risk of readmission increased throughout the period (P < 0.0001) and more than half of all admissions were followed by readmission within a year. Median survival following first admission was 6 years (men 5 years; women 8 years). Age, sex and International Classification of Diseases subcategory each showed an independent effect on the risk of mortality (P < 0.0001). The poorest survival was in patients subcategorized as emphysema. For patients with multiple admissions, the likelihood of cross-over between COPD and asthma was high and increased with the total number of admissions., Conclusion: The rate of admission for COPD has declined in Western Australia; however, the resource burden will continue to increase because of the ageing population. This has policy implications for the development of acute care treatment programmes for COPD.