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Pathophysiological and pharmacological concentrations of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and interleukin-1 beta (IL-1 beta) in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) induce anorexia in normal rats. Obesity in humans and rodents is associated with increased TNF-alpha messenger RNA and protein levels in various cell types. This suggests that obese individuals may have differential regulation of cytokine production and dissimilar responsiveness to cytokines. In the present study, we investigated the effects of the intracerebroventricular (ICV) microinfusion of TNF-alpha (50, 100, and 500 ng/rat), IL-1 beta (1.0, 4.0, and 8.0 ng), and TNF-alpha (100 ng) plus IL-1 beta (1.0 ng) on obese (fa/fa) and lean (Fa/Fa) Zucker rats. The results show that: TNF-alpha and IL-1 beta, and the concomitant administration of TNF-alpha and IL-1 beta decreased the short-term (4 hours), nighttime (12 hours), and total daily food intakes in obese and lean rats; IL-1 beta was more potent relative to TNF-alpha; obese rats showed greater responsiveness to IL-1 beta: 8.0 ng IL-1 beta, for example, decreased the 12-hour food intake by 52% in obese and 22% in lean rats. On the other hand, obese and lean rats did not exhibit a significantly different responsiveness to the anorexia induced by 50, 100, or 500 ng TNF-alpha at the 4-hour period; and the concomitant ICV administration of TNF-alpha and IL-1 beta induced anorexia with additive (4-hour period) or synergistic (12-hour and 24-hour periods) effects in obese rats. The effect of TNF-alpha plus IL-1 beta in lean rats was greater than additive for the 12-hour and 24-hour periods. The difference in suppression of total daily food intake by TNF-alpha plus IL-1 beta in obese (-43%) versus lean (-23%) rats was significantly different (p < 0.01). The results show that obese (fa/fa) and lean (Fa/Fa) Zucker rats have differential responsiveness to the ICV microinfusion of two different classes of cytokines.

The creatine kinase-B (CKB) enzyme is proposed to have a pivotal role in the regeneration of ATP in the nervous system. In the present study, the steady-state levels of CKB mRNA were determined by RNase protection assay in seventeen separate brain regions obtained from rats during the initial interval of the light period or period of inactivity in rats. The antisense probe used specifically hybridizes to CKB mRNA and discriminates CKB from CKM mRNA. The results show that brain regions from Wistar rats differ in CKB mRNA content. Highest levels of CKB mRNA were detected in the male and female cerebellum. High levels of CKB mRNA were observed in the spinal cord, brain stem and its structures (medulla, pons and midbrain) and olfactory bulb of the male rats. Female rats also contained high levels of CKB mRNA in the brain stem. In both male and female rats, the frontal cortex, occipital cortex, hippocampus and striatum exhibited lower levels of CKB mRNA relative to the complete brain. Statistical analyses demonstrated a significant difference between the male and female CKB mRNA profiles. However, CKB mRNA levels in brain regions with estrogen receptors (hypothalamus, hippocampus) were similar in male and female rats. Differential CKB mRNA levels in various brain regions may suggest diverse physiological significance of the CKB system in the regulation of brain energy metabolism.

Interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-6, IL-8, and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) induce acute anorexia by direct action in the central nervous system (CNS) at estimated pathophysiological concentrations reported in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Cytokine-induced anorexia may also participate in the long-term anorexia observed during disease. Here, we studied the effects of chronic intracerebroventricular (ICV) microinfusion (through osmotic minipumps) of various cytokines on feeding and drinking in rats. The results show: IL-1β decreased nighttime feeding dose-dependently (with 0.5, l.0, 2.0, and 8.0 ng/24 h, n ≥ 8/group). The decrease of feeding and corresponding decrease of body weight persisted during the 7-day infusion. Total daily food intake decrease was less prominent relative to the nighttime decrease because daytime food intake slightly increased. Feeding and body weight increased toward baseline following the end of the IL-1β infusion. ICV microinfusion of heat-inactivated IL-1β or IL-1β plus IL-1 receptor antagonist had no effect, suggesting specificity of action of IL-1β. Water intake did not decrease in any IL-1β-β-treated group, suggesting specificity on feeding. Chronic ICV administration of TNF-α (20, 100, or 300 ng/24 h), IL-6 (100 ng/24 h), or IL-8 (20 ng/24 h) was significantly less effective than IL-1β in inducing behavioral modifications. The results suggest that IL-1β, at doses that yield estimated pathophysiological concentrations in the CSF, is capable of inducing long-term anorexia and this effect may participate in the anorexia observed during chronic disease.

Interleukin-1 beta (IL-1 beta) is released during pathophysiological processes. IL-1 beta induces neurological manifestations when administered into the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) at pathophysiological concentrations detected during central nervous system (CNS) infections and other neurological disorders. In the present study, we investigated the regulation of the IL-1 beta system in the CNS in response to the chronic intracerebroventricular (icv) microinfusion of IL-1 beta at estimated pathophysiological concentrations in the CSF. IL-1 receptor type I (IL-1RI), IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra), and IL-1 beta mRNAs were determined by sensitive RNase protection assays in brain target regions for IL-1 beta (cerebellum, parieto-frontal cortex, hippocampus, and midbrain). The results show that chronic icy microinfusion of IL-1 beta induced significant anorexia, increased the cerebellar IL-1RI mRNA content, increased IL-1Ra and IL-1 beta mRNAs levels in the cerebellummidbraincortexhippocampus, and induced profiles of IL-1RI mRNA, IL-1Ra mRNA, and IL-1 beta mRNA that were highly intercorrelated. On the other hand, levels of rat glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase mRNA and 18S rRNA were fairly constant, and heat-inactivated IL-1 beta had no effect on food intake or on IL-1RI, IL-1Ra, and IL-1 beta mRNAs levels in any brain region. The data suggest the operation of an IL-1 beta feedback system (IL-1 beta/ IL-1Ra/IL-1RI) in brain regions. Dysregulation of the CNS IL-1 beta feedback system may have pathophysiological significance. This may be reflected, for example, in the pathogenicity and severity of neurological diseases, such as CNS infections.

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) increases feeding by direct action in the central nervous system (CNS). Interleukin-1 beta (IL-1 beta), on the other hand, induces anorexia when administered ICV at estimated pathophysiological (e.g., yielded by 1.0 ng/rat dose) and pharmacological (> or = 4.0 ng) concentrations in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). In the present study, we investigated NPY/IL-1 beta interactions using the ICV administration. ICV microinfusion of NPY (5.0 micrograms) significantly increased 2-h food intake (by 89%), whereas IL-1 beta decreased 2-h food intake (32% decrease with 1.0 ng/rat; 53% with 4.0 ng/rat; and 51% with 8.0 ng/rat). NPY (5.0 micrograms) blocked the anorexic effect induced by all doses of IL-1 beta when both compounds were administered concomitantly. Central infusion of NPY was also able to induce feeding in IL-1 beta-pretreated rats exhibiting marked anorexia. The results show that ICV-administered NPY blocks and reverses the anorexia induced by estimated pathophysiological and pharmacological concentrations of IL-1 beta in rats. A second interpretation of a data subset is that IL-1 beta attenuates or blocks NPY-induced increase in feeding depending on the IL-1 beta dose used. Blockage and reversal of IL-1 beta-induced anorexia by NPY suggest the importance in studying cytokine-peptide interactions in the regulation of feeding behavior. Understanding these endogenous interactions may produce strategies with potential therapeutic implications for chronic diseases associated with long-term anorexia.

A variety of G-protein-coupled receptors are proposed to participate in the modulation of ingestive behavior and in the mode of action of antiobesity drugs. In the present study, we investigated the involvement of G-protein alpha-subunit subclasses (molecular transducers of multiple chemical signals) in the control of ingestive behavior. We report here that the chronic intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) microinfusion for 72 h (via osmotic minipumps) with antisense phosphothio-oligodeoxynucleotides corresponding to G-protein alpha-subunitO common (to OA and OB) and OA subclasses decrease the nighttime food intake without affecting water intake in rats. Computerized analyses of the microstructure of feeding indicate that the G alpha OA antisense depresses feeding by reducing meal frequency, while meal size and meal duration increased slightly, but not significantly. The effects of G alpha O common and G alpha OA antisense on feeding are specific since the chronic i.c.v. microinfusion of sense to G alpha O common or G alpha OA, antisense to the related subclass G alpha OB, and antisense to other G-protein alpha-subunits (G alpha S, G alpha Q, G alpha 11 and G alpha i common) had no effect on food or water intake. The observed effects by G alpha O common and G alpha OA antisense imply a direct action in the central nervous system since the chronic subcutaneous microinfusion of G alpha O common and G alpha OA antisense in doses equivalent to two-fold higher relative to those administered centrally had no effect on food intake. The chronic microinfusion of G alpha O common antisense drastically decreased the levels of G alpha O protein detected in immunoblots of hypothalamic ventromedial nuclei. The results suggest that the G-protein alpha-subunit subclass G alpha OA is critical for the integrative modulation of normal feeding behavior, and that changes in its activity may be associated with modifications of feeding. These studies also show a novel approach to study the molecular basis of specific behaviors by manipulating elements of the transductional systems.

Increased levels of beta 2-microglobulin (part of the class I major histocompatibility complex molecules) in body fluids are associated with activation of the immune system and pathophysiological processes. Various anorexigenic cytokines, including interferon-gamma and tumor necrosis factor-alpha, induce the expression of class I molecules. Therefore, it is possible that beta 2-microglobulin may participate in the feeding suppression induced by cytokines or may have direct effects on feeding. In the present study, the effects of beta 2-microglobulin on the central regulation of feeding were investigated. Intracerebroventricular (ICV) microinfusion of beta 2-microglobulin (0.01-5.0 micrograms/rat) suppressed the nighttime food intake dose dependently. The most effective dose of beta 2-microglobulin, 5.0 micrograms/rat, decreased nighttime feeding by 38% and total daily food intake by 28%. Computerized analysis of behavioral patterns demonstrated that beta 2-microglobulin decreased meal size and meal frequency during the initial 4-h interval, but decreased only meal size during the second 4-h interval after the ICV microinfusion of 5.0 micrograms beta 2-microglobulin/rat; meal duration was not significantly affected in any interval. For the complete nighttime period, only meal size was significantly decreased. Cerebrospinal fluid-brain and rectal temperatures did not change significantly. ICV microinfusion of heat-treated beta 2-microglobulin or intraperitoneal administration of beta 2-microglobulin, in doses equivalent to those administered centrally, had no effect on food intake. The results suggest that beta 2-microglobulin may act centrally to decrease feeding, and this effect may participate in the anorexia frequently accompanying pathological processes.

Buprenorphine is a synthetic opioid proposed as a potential treatment for drug abuse. Although buprenorphine is widely considered to be a partial agonist at opioid receptors, little is known of its electrophysiological effects in the central nervous system. Because buprenorphine has been reported to have limited hedonic effects in humans, and since activation of the dopaminergic system is thought to be critical to the reinforcing effects of drugs, we compared the ability of buprenorphine and morphine to activate dopamine neurons. We report here that buprenorphine and morphine are equally effective in increasing the impulse flow of dopamine cells in the ventral tegmental area. Extracellular single unit activity was recorded from dopaminergic (DA) neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) of chloral hydrate anethestized rats. Standard physiological and anatomical criteria were used to identify DA neurons. Systemic injection of buprenorphine (5–200 μg/kg, i.v.) and morphine (1–10 mg/kg, i.v.) produced equal magnitudes of activation in a similar subset of DA neurons in the VTA (buprenorphine: 173%; morphine: 164%). Unlike morphine, the activation by buprenorphine was not reversed by the opioid antagonist naloxone (50–100 μg/kg, i.v.), but this is consistent with the known pharmacodynamics of buprenorphine at opioid receptors. These studies demonstrate that acute administration of buprenorphine has morphinelike effects on the impulse activity of DA neurons. The implications for use of buprenorphine as a clinical treatment for drug abuse are discussed. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Although osteopathic manipulative treatment (OMT) is used to manage myriad conditions, there has been some hesitation regarding the safety of applying OMT to patients with intracranial injuries or elevated intracranial pressure (ICP).To assess the safety of two OMT techniques--pedal pump and thoracic pump--on ICP and cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP) in patients with traumatic brain injuries (Glasgow Coma Scale scoreor =8).We prospectively enrolled consecutive patients admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU) for traumatic brain injury. Patients between the ages of 18 and 75 years and with abnormal CT scans were included in the present study. Patients with baseline ICP values of 20 mm Hg or lower were assigned to group 1, and those with ICP levels greater than 20 mm Hg, group 2. Patients underwent continuous ICP and CPP monitoring, with ICP measured using a ventricular catheter and fiber optic device. Values of ICP and CPP were recorded at baseline, during application of the OMT techniques, and 5 minutes after the two OMT techniques were completed. Patients received up to three treatment cycles. Ventricular drains remained open (stopcock open) during OMT, allowing continued cerebral spinal fluid drainage, except for brief periodic closures (stopcock closed) every minute to register accurate ICP values. Statistical analysis was performed using a dependent t test with repeated measures.Twenty-four comatose patients, aged 18 to 69 years, received a total of 50 sessions of pedal pump and thoracic pump techniques. In group 1 patients, a slight decrease in ICP values (mean, -0.586 mm Hg) and an increase in CPP values (mean, 1.1613 mm Hg) was noted post-OMT. Patients in group 2 also had decreased mean ICP values (-1.20 mm Hg) and increased mean CPP values (2.2105 mm Hg). Changes were not statistically significant in either group.According to the present limited study, pedal pump and thoracic pump techniques may be used safely in patients with severe brain injuries.

IL-1beta induces anorexia and adipsia. Here, we report that intracerebroventricular (ICV) pretreatment with an antisense (but not sense) phosphothio-oligodeoxynucleotide to the IL-1 receptor type I (IL-1RI, 1.28 microg or 239 pmol twice daily for 3.5 days before IL-1beta plus antisense) inhibits the anorexia, but not the adipsia induced by the ICV administration of 2.0 ng IL-1beta/rat (a dose that yields estimated pathophysiological concentrations in the cerebrospinal fluid). The mean 2 h food intake decrease in response to IL-1beta was 5.6% (n = 10) in the antisense- and 43% in the sense (n = 9)-treated groups; the mean 2 h water intake decrease was 40% in the antisense- and 39% in the sense-treated groups. The intraperitoneal administration of IL-1RI antisense, in doses equivalent to those administered centrally, had no effect on the anorexic effect induced by ICV administered IL-1beta; this indicates a direct action in the central nervous system. The results suggest that: i) IL-1RI is involved in the short-term anorexigenic, but not the adipsogenic effect induced by centrally administered IL-1beta; and ii) the approach presented using antisense strategies is applicable to study the molecular basis of IL-1 mediated behaviors.

Interleukin (IL)-1 beta, IL-8, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) induce anorexia when administered intracerebroventricularly at doses that yield estimated pathophysiological concentrations reported in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Our hypothesis is that pivotal cytokines released during pathological processes interact to induce anorexia during disease. In the present study, we investigated the effects of the intracerebroventricular microinfusion of individual or multiple combinations (8 dyads and 5 triads) of IL-1 beta, IL-8, and TNF-alpha on feeding and the microstructure of eating in rats maintained ad libitum. Estimated pathophysiological concentrations of cytokine combinations exhibited additive or synergistic activities in inducing anorexia. Computerized analysis of behavioral patterns demonstrated that the most effective treatment (triad of 1.0 ng IL-1 beta + 20 ng IL-8 + 20 ng TNF-alpha/rat, n = 11) decreased nighttime meal size by 42% and feeding rate (meal size/meal duration) by 26%, whereas it increased the satiety ratio (postprandial intermeal intervals/meal size) by 80%; meal duration and meal frequency were not significantly affected. Analysis of meal parameters in 4-h intervals revealed a maximum effect during the first 4-h interval after the intracerebroventricular administration. The time course during this initial 4-h interval analyzed in 10-min periods was similar for IL-8 (n = 10) and TNF-alpha (n = 11), and both were significantly different from the time course induced by IL-1 beta (n = 10) and the most effective triad (n = 11). Intracerebroventricular microinfusion of heat-inactivated triad or intraperitoneal administration of the most effective triad, in doses-equivalent to those administered centrally, had no effect on feeding. The results suggest that estimated pathophysiological concentrations of cytokines in the CSF act centrally and additively or synergistically to decrease feeding, and this effect may participate in the anorexia frequently accompanying pathological processes.