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To spatially characterize the palaeolakeshore environment at the archaeological kill site Schöningen 13 II-4 of the Middle Pleistocene Reinsdorf sequence, in-depth palynological, geochemical, aquatic microfossil and archaeological analyses were undertaken on sediment sections with an average thickness of about 15 cm, concordantly overlain by faunal remains, dominated by horse, from the unique ‘Spear Horizon’ layers of the 1995 excavation campaign. The data reveal a distinctive lake level drop, documented by the change from a carbonate-rich lake marl to a carbonate-free organic mud with increased carbon content and decreasing C/N, Si/Al, Si/K and Fe/Al ratios, indicating a higher pedogenic supply of organic matter and drier conditions at the site. Compared with older, similar transitional phases of lake level changes occurring within the Reinsdorf sequence, it is important that these youngest sediments are undisturbed, indicating continuous development. Ostracod and diatom analyses indicate a lowering water level with higher salinities and rich aquatic vegetation. Mesorheophilic ostracod species along with tychoplanktic diatom taxa point to flowing waters and turbulence at the lakeshore, presumably related to spring-fed streams originating from nearby highlands. Palynological results reveal a very diverse zonal vegetation pattern around the palaeolakeshore considering an area of investigation of approximately 50 × 75 m and a tessellated type of regional vegetation during the formation of the archaeological horizons. On topographically lower elevated areas, birch groves and taxa favouring wet, marshy conditions such as Cyperaceae, indicative of terrestrialization, were predominating, while other stands of this transitional phase reveal a very dry, grass-dominated steppe woodland favouring a rich wildlife with a striking number of megaherbivores. Our results suggest that the lithological differences of the ‘Spear Horizon’ layers containing the archaeological finds were due to their respective topographical situation and that the layers were deposited almost simultaneously during the beginning of the lake level drop. Human activities seem to have concentrated in sparsely vegetated areas along the palaeolakeshore, rather than in areas of adjacent denser birch swamp forest stands.

The Schöningen 13II-4 site has produced a wealth of insight into the hunting and butchery activities of Middle Pleistocene hominins, highlighted by the famous Schöningen spears preserved with hundreds of cut-marked and broken horse bones. The bones of carnivores are rare at the site, but tooth pits, scores, and other markings that record their presence are abundant. Here we describe the carnivore remains from Schöningen 13II-4 and provide a detailed analysis of carnivore markings on different skeletal parts in the faunal assemblage and their spatial distribution. In studying carnivore activities at Schöningen, we aim to achieve a more comprehensive view of site taphonomy and, in turn, a better appreciation of the anthropogenic process that shaped the archaeological record. The placement and sequence of carnivore marks on the bones in relation to butchery marks indicates that carnivores scavenged from the remains of hominin kills. In the large horse bone assemblage, carnivore damage is more prevalent on limb bones of juveniles than adults. This pattern reveals that adult horse carcasses were fully butchered by hominins, but juvenile horse carcasses were abandoned earlier in the butchery process, leaving more consumable tissues that attracted scavenging carnivores. Tooth pits and scores on the Schöningen remains are very large and compare well with markings produced by wolves, especially those observed in a sample of modern wolf-gnawed bones we collected and analysed from Adler- und Wolfspark Kasteelburg. Clusters of carnivore-damaged bones appear around the periphery of dense concentrations of bones butchered by hominins, suggesting that wolves displaced some skeletal elements quickly after abandonment by hominins. Such a spatial pattern hints at the long-standing co-habitation of the Schöningen landscape by hominins and wolves during the Middle Pleistocene

Mollusc biogenic carbonates are valuable records of past environmental conditions. In particular, carbonate oxygen (δ18O) and carbon (δ13C) stable isotopes can be used to reconstruct different physical and chemical parameters, according to the different genera used (marine, freshwater or terrestrial). The Last Interglacial (early Eemian) palaeolake of Neumark-Nord 2 (NN2), Germany provides an excellent example of a Neanderthal archaeological site with abundant freshwater carbonate remains. As in other European contexts, one of the most abundant species is Bithynia tentaculata. In order to provide a robust regional baseline for the interpretation of the archaeological data, this study includes a calibration phase on modern B. tentaculata opercula. The results indicate that these calcitic structures are likely to be subjected to a growth slowdown/cessation during summer, which influences their geochemistry, reflecting mainly the water properties of the rest of the year. This modern calibration, together with the existing palaeoenvironmental reconstructions developed for NN2 (e.g. pollen data), represents a valuable opportunity to establish B. tentaculata opercula as reliable environmental proxies applicable to several other freshwater contexts. The isotope data of the NN2 opercula, in agreement with the pollen record, indicate that the major archaeological horizon was formed during a rather wet period and potentially in a semi-forested environment. However, human occupation occurred also during drier phases at the site and within a wide temperature range, indicating the absence of restricted environmental preferences by the local Neanderthal groups.