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Objectives: Suicide by pesticide self-poisoning is a major public health challenge in low- and middle-income countries. While effectiveness studies are required to test alternative prevention approaches, economic evidence is lacking to inform decision-making in research priority setting. Therefore, this study aimed to estimate the costs of a shop-based gatekeeper training programme for pesticide vendors seeking to prevent pesticide self-poisoning in rural Sri Lanka and assess its potential for cost-effectiveness., Methods: Ex-ante cost and cost-effectiveness threshold (CET) analyses were performed from a governmental perspective based on a three-year analytic horizon, using 'no programme' as a comparator. A programme model targeting all 535 pesticide shops in the North Central Province and border areas was applied. Total programme costs (TPC) were estimated in 2019 USD using an ingredients approach and 3% annual discounting. The Sri Lankan gross domestic product per capita and life years saved were used as CET and effectiveness measure, respectively. Sensitivity analyses were performed., Results: TPC were estimated at 31 603.03 USD. TPC were sensitive to cost changes of training material and equipment and the programme lifetime. The programme needs to prevent an estimated 0.23 fatal pesticide self-poisoning cases over three years to be considered cost-effective. In the sensitivity analyses, the highest number of fatal cases needed to be prevented to obtain cost-effectiveness was 4.55 over three years., Conclusions: From an economic perspective, the programme has a very high potential to be cost-effective. Research assessing its effectiveness should therefore be completed, and research analysing its transferability to other settings prioritised., (© 2020 The Authors Tropical Medicine & International Health Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

We study the relationship between gatekeeping on one hand and costs as well as efficiency on the other hand. We do this with special focus on the relative amount of general practitioners in the system when compared with all practitioners. Data collected between 2002 and 2011 by The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development on 34 countries were analyzed. Of those, 18 countries have gatekeeping systems while 16 do not. The association between gatekeeping and health care costs was examined with regression analysis. Efficiency was assessed with data envelopment analysis. Finally, the efficiency assessments were analyzed with regression techniques to examine if gatekeeping and/or the ratio of GPs to all practitioners was associated with efficiency. Point estimates indicate that total costs tend to be lower in systems where GPs act as gatekeepers. However, efficiency is slightly lower where gatekeeping exists. Neither of these results is statistically significant at the 95% confidence level. There is also indication that the efficiency of a gatekeeping system increases with increased amount of GPs. When GPs are over 30% of practitioners, gatekeeping countries have more efficient health care systems than their counterparts. Consistent with other studies, we estimate income elasticity of health care demand to be 1.12, suggesting that those societies consider health care to be a luxury good., (© 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.)

Objectives: As US healthcare spending increases, insurers are focusing attention on decreasing potentially avoidable specialist care. Little recent research has assessed whether the design of modern health maintenance organization (HMO) insurance is associated with lower utilization of outpatient specialty care versus less restrictive preferred provider organization (PPO) plans., Study Design: Observational study of Massachusetts residents aged 21 to 64 years with any HMO or PPO insurance coverage from 2010 to 2013., Methods: We examined rates and patterns of primary care visits, new specialist visits, and specialist spending among HMO versus PPO enrollees. We estimated multivariable regression models for each outcome, adjusting for patient and insurance characteristics., Results: From 2010 to 2013, 546,397 and 295,427 individuals had continuous HMO or PPO coverage, respectively. HMO patients had fewer annual new specialist visits per member versus PPO patients (unadjusted, 0.37 vs 0.43), a difference after adjustment of 0.05 annual visits, or a 12% relative decrease among HMO members (P <.001). These visits were more likely to be with a specialist in the same health system as the patient's primary care physician (44.9% vs 40.7%; adjusted difference, 2.8 percentage points; P <.001). Mean annual spending on new specialist visits and subsequent follow-up per member was lower in HMO versus PPO patients (unadjusted, $104.10 vs $128.10), translating to 12% lower annual spending (adjusted difference, -$16.26; P <.001)., Conclusions: Having HMO insurance was associated with lower rates of new specialist visits and lower spending on specialist visits, and these visits were less likely to occur across multiple health systems. The impact of this change on overall spending and clinical outcomes remains unknown.

A MedPage Today blog post suggested that they do. A torrent of online comments followed. Most were somewhere on the spectrum of outraged. For their part, industry veterans said that they're unaware of bonuses for denials but agree that prior authorization processes should be more transparent.

In many countries, general practitioners (GPs) are assigned the task of controlling the validity of their own patients' insurance claims. At the same time, they operate in a market where patients are customers free to choose their GP. Are these roles compatible? Can we trust that the gatekeeping decisions are untainted by private economic interests? Based on administrative registers from Norway with records on sick pay certification and GP-patient relationships, we present evidence to the contrary: GPs are more lenient gatekeepers the more competitive is the physician market, and a reputation for lenient gatekeeping increases the demand for their services., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Background: The general high occupancy of emergency departments during the winter months of 2014/2015 outlined deficits in health politics. Whether on the regional, province, or federal level, verifiable and accepted figures to enable in depth analysis and fact-based controlling of emergency care systems are lacking., Objects: As the first step, reasons for the current situation are outlined in order to developed concrete recommendations for individual hospitals., Methods: This work is based on a selective literature search with focus on quality management, ratio driven management, and process management within emergency departments as well as personal experience with implementation of a key ratio system in a German maximum care hospital., Results and Conclusion: The insufficient integration of emergencies into the DRG systematic, the role as gatekeeper between inpatient and outpatient care sector, the decentralized organization of emergency departments in many hospitals, and the inconsistent representation within the medical societies can be mentioned as reasons for the lack of key ratio systems. In addition to the important role within treatment procedures, emergency departments also have an immense economic importance. Consequently, the management of individual hospitals should promote implementation of key ratio systems to enable controlling of emergency care processes. Thereby the perspectives finance, employees, processes as well as partners and patients should be equally considered. Within the process perspective, milestones could be used to enable detailed controlling of treatment procedures. An implementation of key ratio systems without IT support is not feasible; thus, existing digital data should be used and future data analysis should already be considered during implementation of new IT systems.

This paper analyzes the consequences of allowing gatekeeping general practitioners (GPs) to select their payment mechanism. We model GPs' behavior under the most common payment schemes (capitation and fee for service) and when GPs can select one among them. Our analysis considers GP heterogeneity in terms of both ability and concern for their patients' health. We show that when the costs of wasteful referrals to costly specialized care are relatively high, fee for service payments are optimal to maximize the expected patients' health net of treatment costs. Conversely, when the losses associated with failed referrals of severely ill patients are relatively high, we show that either GPs' self-selection of a payment form or capitation is optimal. Last, we extend our analysis to endogenous effort and to competition among GPs. In both cases, we show that self-selection is never optimal.

I analyze the relationship between health care institutions and the utilization of outpatient services by individuals aged 50 and above. I use cross-sectional micro data from thirteen European countries. I focus on the out-of-pocket costs of health care utilization, the gatekeeper role of general practitioners, and how these institutional settings are related to public and private care utilization. I find that copayments are related negatively to the probability of visiting a general practitioner among those in good health condition. I estimate the utilization of private specialist care to be higher in countries where copayments are required for public specialist care, and where the general practitioners have gatekeeper role. These estimated associations with private specialist care utilization are relatively large in magnitude, and are driven by individuals in the top income quartile., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Selective agreements offer the possibility to the health insurers to influence the control of care, a chance that they urgently need because of cost pressure. The concepts of care can be developed top-down and then a health insurer can make an offer. Or these concepts are developed bottom-up that means a chance for the healthcare providers who want to actively shape the medical care. An essential component for all these concepts is to be able to calculate and administrate funding and control. Pathways are necessary for controlling the treatment which not only have to be developed but also have to be put into practice. The pathway acute sacroiliac pain developed by the Lübeck doctors' network will be described here as an example of a successful implementation.

The accountable care organization (ACO) model of health care delivery is rapidly being implemented under government and private-sector initiatives. The model requires that each ACO have a defined patient population for which the ACO will be held accountable for both total cost of care and quality performance. However, there is no empirical evidence about the best way to define how patients are assigned to these groups of doctors, hospitals, and other health care providers. We examined the two major methods of defining, or attributing, patient populations to ACOs: the prospective method and the performance year method. The prospective method uses data from one year to assign patients to an ACO for the following performance year. The performance year method assigns patients to an ACO at the end of the performance year based on the population served during the performance year. We used Medicare fee-for-service claims data from 2008 and 2009 to simulate a set of ACOs to compare the two methods. Although both methods have benefits and drawbacks, we found that attributing patients using the performance year method yielded greater overlap of attributed patients and patients treated during the performance year and resulted in a higher proportion of care concentrated within an accountable care organization. Together, these results suggest that performance year attribution may more fully and accurately reflect an ACO's patient population and may better position an ACO to achieve shared savings.

Objective: To compare changes in healthcare resource utilization and costs among members with painful diabetic peripheral neuropathy (pDPN), postherpetic neuralgia (PHN), or fibromyalgia (FM) in a commercial health plan implementing pregabalin step-therapy with members in unrestricted plans., Methods: Retrospective study of outcomes associated with implementation of a pregabalin step-therapy protocol using claims data from Humana ('restricted' cohort) and Thomson Reuters MarketScan ('unrestricted' cohort). Members aged 18-65 years receiving treatment for pDPN, PHN, or FM during 2008 or 2009 were identified; cohorts were matched on diagnosis and geographic region. Baseline to follow-up changes in healthcare resource utilization and costs were determined using difference-in-differences (DID) analysis. Statistical models adjusting for covariates explored relationships between restricted access and outcomes., Results: A total of 3876 restricted cohort members were identified and matched to 3876 unrestricted cohort members. FM was the predominant diagnosis (84.7%). The unrestricted cohort was older (mean = 49.0 (SD = 10.4) years vs 47.6 (SD = 10.5) years; p < 0.001), and had greater comorbidity (RxRisk-V score = 5.4 (SD = 3.2) vs 4.4 (SD = 2.9), p < 0.001) than the restricted cohort. Compared with the unrestricted cohort, the restricted cohort demonstrated a greater year-over-year decrease in pregabalin utilization (-2.6%, p = 0.008), and greater increases in physical therapy and disease-related outpatient utilization (3.7%, p = 0.010 and 3.6%, p = 0.022, respectively). There were no statistically significant net differences in all-cause or disease-related total healthcare, medical, or pharmacy costs between cohorts. After adjusting for baseline compositional differences between cohorts, restricted plan membership was associated with a net increase in all-cause medical ($1222; p = 0.016) and disease-related healthcare costs ($859; p = 0.002). Limitations include use of a combined analysis for pDPN, PHN, and FM, especially since the observed results were likely driven by FM; an inability to link the prescribing of a medication with the condition of interest, which is common to claims analyses; and lack of pain severity information., Conclusions: Implementation of a pregabalin step-therapy protocol resulted in lower pregabalin utilization, but this restriction was not associated with reductions in total healthcare costs, medical costs, or pharmacy costs.

This paper analyzes and compares the incentive properties of some common payment mechanisms for GPs, namely fee for service (FFS), capitation and fundholding. It focuses on gatekeeping GPs and it specifically recognizes GPs heterogeneity in both ability and altruism. It also allows inappropriate care by GPs to lead to more serious illnesses. The results are as follows. Capitation is the payment mechanism that induces the most referrals to expensive specialty care. Fundholding may induce almost as much referrals as capitation when the expected costs of GPs care are high relative to those of specialty care. Although driven by financial incentives of different nature, the strategic behaviors associated with fundholding and FFS are very much alike. Finally, whether a regulator should use one or another payment mechanism for GPs will depend on (i) his priorities (either cost-containment or quality enhancement) which, in turn, depend on the expected cost difference between GPs care and specialty care, and (ii) the distribution of profiles (diagnostic ability and altruism levels) among GPs., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Background and Objective: Skin diseases account for a large number of consultations in primary care. The objective of this study was to determine the characteristics and cost of referrals from primary care to a dermatology clinic., Material and Methods: Descriptive cross-sectional study of referrals from a primary care health center to a dermatology clinic. The dermatology clinic was situated in the same health center and was attended by a dermatologist from Complejo Hospitalario Universitario in Albacete, Spain. The study was performed on 10 days selected at random between April 21, 2009, and June 26, 2009. The data gathered included age, sex, use of cryotherapy, and diagnostic group. Patients were divided into 4 diagnostic groups: A) benign degenerative disease or trivial disorders whose treatment may not merit involvement of the national health service, B) diseases resolved with a single dermatology consultation at the health center, C) diseases requiring evaluation in hospital-based dermatology outpatients, and D) diseases referred for surgical treatment., Results: Data were gathered on 257 patients with a mean age was 41.18 years and there was a slight female predominance. The majority of patients were in diagnostic group B (53.7%), followed by groups A (19.1%), C (19.1%), and D (8.2%). The total estimated cost of these 257 visits was €29 750.32, of which €5672.24 was for trivial disorders., Conclusions: The current high prevalence of trivial disorders in the caseload of dermatology clinics by trivial disorders makes it necessary to control referrals from primary care more strictly., (Copyright © 2010 Elsevier España, S.L. y AEDV. All rights reserved.)

Managed care has been the dominant organization of health care coverage in the United States, and seeks to achieve cost control by constraining services. The restrictive practices of managed care organizations have been widely criticized and the role of managed care in constraining health care services may be declining. Physician behavior is also believed to be influenced by the practices of managed care organization. This study examines the evolving nature of managed care and its restrictive effects on the provision of physician services. Physicians can choose whether and to what extent they are involved in managed care, so it is an endogenous decision. We employ instrumental variables method to correct for this endogeneity. Using data from the Community Tracking Study physician surveys from 2000-2001 and 2004-2005, we find that managed care organizations have became relatively less restrictive over time in terms of limiting the provision of physician services, compared to non-managed care organizations. These results suggest that managed care and non-managed care are converging in their effects on the provision of physician services.

Objective: Few data exist on the cost and quality effects of increased use of prior-authorization policies to control psychoactive drug spending among persons with serious mental illness. This study examined the impact of a prior-authorization policy in Maine on second-generation antipsychotic and anticonvulsant utilization, discontinuations in therapy, and pharmacy costs among Medicaid beneficiaries with bipolar disorder., Methods: Using Medicaid and Medicare utilization data for 2001-2004, the authors identified 5,336 patients with bipolar disorder in Maine (study state) and 1,376 in New Hampshire (comparison state). With an interrupted time-series and comparison group design, longitudinal changes were measured in second-generation antipsychotic and anticonvulsant use; survival analysis was used to examine treatment discontinuations and rates of switching medications., Results: The prior-authorization policy resulted in an 8-percentage point reduction in the prevalence of use of nonpreferred second-generation antipsychotic and anticonvulsant medications (those requiring prior authorization) but did not increase use of preferred agents (no prior authorization) or rates of switching. The prior-authorization policy reduced total pharmacy reimbursements for bipolar disorder by $27 per patient during the eight-month policy period. However, the hazard rate of treatment discontinuation (all bipolar drugs) while the policy was in effect was 2.28 (95% confidence interval=1.36-4.33) higher than during the prepolicy period, with adjustment for trends in the comparison state., Conclusions: The small reduction in pharmacy spending for bipolar treatment after the policy was implemented may have resulted from higher rates of medication discontinuation rather than switching. The findings indicate that the prior-authorization policy in Maine may have increased patient risk without appreciable cost savings to the state.

In recent years there have been marked changes in organisational structures and budgetary arrangements in the English National Health Service, potentially altering the relationships between purchasers (primary care organisations (PCOs) and general practices) and hospitals. We show that elective admissions from PCOs and practices became significantly more concentrated across hospitals between 1997/98 and 2002/03. There was a reduction in the average number of hospitals used by PCOs (16.7-14.2), an increase in the average share of admissions accounted for by the main hospital (49-69%), and an increase in the average Herfindahl index (0.35-0.55). About half the increase in concentration arose from the increase in the number of purchasing organisations as 100 health authorities were replaced by 303 primary care trusts. Most of the remainder was probably due to hospital mergers. Fundholding general practices that held budgets for elective admissions had less concentrated admission patterns than non-fundholders whose admissions were paid for by their PCO. Around 1/10th of the increase in concentration at practice level was due to the abolition of fundholding in April 1999. Our results have implications for the effects of the recent reintroduction of fundholding and the halving of the number of PCOs., (Copyright (c) 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.)

Patients, providers, and policy leaders need a new moral compass to guide them in the turbulent U.S. health care system. Task forces have proposed excellent ethical codes, but these have been seen as too abstract to provide guidance at the front lines. Harvard Pilgrim Health Care's ten-year experience with an organizational ethics program suggests ways in which health care organizations can strengthen transparency, consumer focus, and overall ethical performance and contribute to the national health policy dialogue.

Between 1991 and 1998 English general practices had the option of holding budgets for prescribing and elective secondary care. Fundholding was reintroduced in 2005. We examine the effect of fundholding on patients' satisfaction with their practice, using a cross section of 4441 patients from 60 practices in the last year of fundholding (1998). We employ instrumental variables to allow for the endogeneity of fundholding. Patients of fundholders were less satisfied with the opening hours of their practice, their GP's knowledge of their medical history, with their GP's ability to arrange tests and willingness to refer to a specialist, and were more likely to agree that their doctor was more concerned about keeping costs down. Fundholder practices performed better on a number of process measures of care, and fundholding patients were more satisfied with additional non-medical services provided by the practice. The probability that patients were overall at least very satisfied with their GP practice was 0.073 (95% CI, 0.009-0.138) smaller in fundholding practices.

This paper examines the influence of episode attribution methodology and cost outlier methodology on the accuracy of physicians' economic profiles. Four years of claims data from a mixed model HMO were processed using the leading episode grouper software. Episode grouped results then were applied to construct input distributions for a simulation model. For each of four specialties (cardiology, family practice, general surgery, and neurology), we employed sets of 18 simulations to investigate the effects of three alternative episode attribution methodologies and six alternative cost outlier methodologies on sensitivity, specificity, and positive predictive error in classifying cost-efficient and cost-inefficient physicians. For identification of cost-efficient physicians, the most accurate profiling results were obtained when Winsorizing outliers at 2% and 98% of episode-type cost distributions, and attributing responsibility for episode costs to physicians who accounted for at least 30% of associated professional and prescribing fees. No consistent combination of outlier methodology and episode attribution rule was found to be superior for identifying cost-inefficient physicians.

Study Objective: The impact of isolated gate-keeping on health care costs remains unclear. The aim of this study was to assess to what extent lower costs in a gate-keeping plan compared with a fee for service plan were attributable to more efficient resource management, or explained by risk selection., Design: Year 2000 costs to the Swiss statutory sick funds and potentially relevant covariates were assessed retrospectively from beneficiaries participating in an observational study, their primary care physicians, and insurance companies. To adjust for case mix, two-part regression models of health care costs were fitted, consisting of logistic models of any costs occurring, and of generalised linear models of the amount of costs in persons with non-zero costs. Complementary data sources were used to identify selection effects., Setting: A gate-keeping plan introduced in 1997 and a fee for service plan, in Aarau, Switzerland., Participants: Of each plan, 905 randomly selected adult beneficiaries were invited. The overall participation rate was 39%, but was unevenly distributed between plans., Main Results: The characteristics of gate-keeping and fee for service beneficiaries were largely similar. Unadjusted total costs per person were Sw fr 231 (8%) lower in the gate-keeping group. After multivariate adjustment, the estimated cost savings achieved by replacing fee for service based health insurance with gate-keeping in the source population amounted to Sw fr 403-517 (15%-19%) per person. Some selection effects were detected but did not substantially influence this result. An impact of non-detected selection effects cannot be ruled out., Conclusions: This study hints at substantial cost savings through gate-keeping that are not attributable to mere risk selection.

The idea of family doctor-based health care corresponds to a social necessity for economical health care and a basic requirement for family doctors. However, this request is turned into the opposite by the legal description of a "particularly qualified family doctor". Economic interests dominate, dissect the family doctor level and influence long-standing family doctor-patient relationships and put the performance of social goals into question. Against that, the Family Doctor Association is setting the concept for family doctor-based integrated care, which also places quality demands, but does not exclude physicians basically or by selection of the compulsory health insurance fund.

Background: The comparison of different health care systems is one way to give empirical evidence to health care reform and policy. The differences between health care systems in which general practitioners serve as gate keepers in comparison to systems in which patients are free to contact every physician and specialist they like are a question of high interest., Method: This study compares the Netherlands and Germany, two countries with very similar political, social, and health system structures, but different types of access to the health care system. While Germany offers unconstrained access to specialist ambulatory care, the Netherlands restricts health care utilization by giving primary care a 'gate keeper' function not allowing patients direct access to specialist care. Data from the WHO international collaborative study on psychological problems in general health care (Ustün and Sartorius 1995) were analysed with respect to pathways to care, treatment, and health status. In an initial cross-sectional assessment, in 3-month and 12-month follow-ups, contacts to physicians or hospital admission have also been monitored., Results: There were only marginal differences between the Dutch and the German sample in the sociodemographic characteristics as well as in the diagnostic status with respect to mental disorders. In the Netherlands, 95.5%, and in Germany, 68.8% of the patients presented their 'reason for visit' for the first time to any physician at this index contact with a general practitioner. During the following 3 months, 24% of the Dutch patients, but 60.2% of the German patients, additionally contacted other physicians ( P < 0.001). At 12 months, this rate was 62.9% vs. 78.6% ( P < 0.001). During the 12-month follow-up period, there were 15.7 0/00 hospital admissions in Germany vs. 25.4 0/00 in the Netherlands ( P < 0.005) [corrected]., Conclusions: Family physicians in a gate keeper system reduce the number of contacts to other physicians and the intensity of treatment, while at the same time the rate of hospital admissions is increased.

Background and Objective: The gate-keeping role of general practitioners (GPs) is currently the topic of much debate in Germany. Currently it is possible for patients in Germany to see a specialist either through referral by their GP or directly through self-referral. To determine whether the gate-keeping role of GPs has a filtering effect, we compared patients referred by their GPs with self-referred patients presenting with suspected chronic venous insufficiency (CVI) to a specialist practice., Patients and Methods: From September to December 2001, we prospectively recruited 316 patients seen for suspected CVI in a specialist practice for vascular surgery and phlebology. Symptoms and clinical findings were recorded using a standardized form., Results: 58.2 % of patients were referred by their GPs. These patients were on average 6 years older and presented at a more advanced stage of disease than self-referred patients. No difference was found between patients with and without referral with respect to the symptoms reported or the therapy recommended by the specialist. CVI was excluded in 7.1 % of patients with a referral and in 6.8 % of those without a referral., Conclusions: The majority of patients consulting a specialist were referred by their GP. The more advanced disease stage of these patients indicates that a filtering process occurs in referral by GPs. However, the share of patients without referrals in whom CVI could be excluded was low and not significantly different from that of patients with referrals. This indicates that misdiagnosis due to self-referral is relatively modest. A cost reduction effect in a gate-keeper system could therefore only be small.

Doctors and patients generally share a common interest in maximizing the quality of care. Purchasers of health care on the other hand, desire cost-effective levels of quality. We consider the purchaser's problem of implementing supply-side cost sharing when patients and doctors are asymmetrically informed and can collude to advance their own joint interests in maximal quality. Such collusion can be interpreted as the sort of informal side-payments that are observed in transitional and developing economies. It may also be interpreted as a "formal" (but unregulated) case of physician balance billing. We show that both collusion-proof schemes and collusion-inducing schemes can implement cost-effective care. A number of policy implications are discussed. In particular, more permissive advertising of referred services (such as pharmaceuticals) and more informed patients will increase the cost of implementing collusion-proof mechanisms. If patients have a high willingness to pay or are informed, then allowing collusion may be preferred.