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Correspondence training involves modification of nonverbal behavior via changes in verbal behavior. The procedure has a long history of effectiveness with a wide range of learners, but its potential for use with young children with disabilities remains largely unrealized. In an effort to identify the most appropriate applications of correspondence training procedures for this population, the authors conducted a comprehensive review of the existing literature base. The purpose of this article is to provide an in-depth, critical analysis of empirical research on the effectiveness of correspondence training. Thirty-three data-based articles are included in the review, which is organized into 4 categories, including: (1) early correspondence training research; (2) the role of the verbalization/content condition in correspondence training; (3) issues related to reinforcement; and (4) procedures to promote generalization. (Contains 3 tables.)

A multiple probe design across behaviors was used to evaluate the effectiveness of a SMART Board used in conjunction with teacher delivered constant time delay (CTD) to teach environmental text to three young students with disabilities and minimal group learning experience during small group direct instruction. Observational learning, instructive feedback, and generalization were also assessed. Initially, reinforcement was presented to the group via the SMART Board, but was modified to a token economy to address challenging behavior and non-responding in some students. Results suggest that using a SMART Board and CTD was effective for one participant when group reinforcement was used and effective for all participants when an individualized token economy was added to sessions. Teachers should be cautious when using group reinforcement strategies with young students who may not have extended learning histories with small group instruction and reinforcement other than token economies. Suggestions for future research and implications for practice are provided.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate both video modeling and observational learning to teach age-appropriate recreation and leisure skills (i.e., accessing video games) to students with autism spectrum disorder. Effects of video modeling were evaluated via a multiple probe design across participants and criteria for mastery were based on these results. Secondary measures were collected on observational learning across participants and behaviors. Participants included 4 children with autism, ages 8-11, who were served in self-contained special education classrooms. Results indicated a functional relation between video modeling and increased independence in gaming; observational learning occurred for at least some steps across students. Results, implications for practitioners, limitations, and ideas for future research are discussed.

The purpose of this review was to identify naturalistic language interventions for increasing spontaneous expressive language (defined in this review as absence of verbal prompt or other verbalization from adults or peers) in young children with autism spectrum disorder. Also, the methodological rigor and effectiveness of each study were evaluated to determine which interventions confidently led to increases in the target behavior. A total of 24 studies that included 45 participants, 2 to 9 years of age, used a naturalistic language intervention. When using What Works Clearinghouse (WWC) guidelines to evaluate design standards, 50% of studies had adequate rigor and 33% of those studies demonstrated positive effects in the target behavior. In addition, the components of each intervention were coded and grouped by function. Implications for teachers, practitioners, and researchers are provided.

Constant time delay (CTD) and simultaneous prompting (SP) are effective response prompting procedures for teaching students with moderate to severe disabilities. The purpose of this study was to compare the efficiency of CTD and SP when teaching functional sight words to four students, 8-11 years of age, with moderate intellectual disability (ID) or dual diagnosis of moderate ID and autism spectrum disorder. An adapted alternating treatments design was used to evaluate the efficiency of CTD and SP procedures in regard to (a) percent of training errors, (b) total number of sessions, (c) mean minutes of training time, and (d) total number of trials through criterion. Results indicated that CTD resulted in fewer errors and SP required less instructional time, with mixed results for number of sessions and trials through criterion.

The effectiveness of a self-management intervention on social interaction behaviors was evaluated for students with disabilities and social deficits. Four students enrolled in a general education kindergarten classroom were taught to self-monitor social initiations during nonstructured social time via a digital wrist counter. The number of social initiations and concurrent engagement in social interactions were recorded in 10-min observation sessions, within the context of a multiple baseline design across participants. Generalization was assessed in novel social situations through pre- and postintervention sessions. The number of social initiations and mean percentage of intervals participants were interacting increased for all participants. Topics for future research and implications for special education professionals are discussed.

In this study, three elementary-aged boys with high-functioning autism (HFA) were taught to use a graphic organizer called a Story Map as a postreading tool during language arts instruction. Students learned to accurately complete the Story Map. The effect of the intervention on story recall was assessed within the context of a multiple-baseline design across participants as measured by performance on modified Accelerated Reader quizzes. Positive effects were achieved quickly and maintained throughout the study. During choice and maintenance conditions, two participants rarely chose to use the graphic organizer, a visual prompt that may have been self-faded during intervention. Results show that a Story Map may be a useful graphic organizer for elementary schoolteachers who have children with HFA in their classrooms. (Contains 3 tables and 2 figures.)

Individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) have difficulty generalizing learned behavior to varied environments with independence. This review of 24 empirical studies compares self-management as a systematic procedure for modifying one's own behavior, to increase target behaviors in students with either autistic disorder (AD) or high-functioning autism/Asperger's syndrome (HFA/AS). Twenty-four single subject research studies are included in the review comparing methodological, demographic, procedural, and outcome aspects of self-management studies between the two disorders under the umbrella of Pervasive Developmental Disorder (PDD). Results show that self-management procedures, regardless of components and age of child, are effective in teaching social, vocational, and communication skills, or decreasing restrictive and repetitive patterns of behaviors for individuals with a PDD. General conclusions are made on how the procedures are used differently across levels of functioning within the autism spectrum and PDD. This literature should encourage researchers and practitioners to continue interventions using self-management procedures with this population to broaden the research base and improve methodological adequacy. (Contains 4 tables and 1 figure.)

The primary purpose of this study was to examine the effects of video modeling delivered via computer on accurate and independent use of an iPod by three participants with moderate intellectual disabilities. In the context of combined multiple probes across participants and replicated across tasks, three female middle school students learned to watch a movie, listen to music, and look at photos on an iPod. Video clips were created in point of view, as if participants were performing the task and presented via video modeling on an IBM computer. During instruction, participants watched the videos of the entire task they were currently learning. In addition to data on accuracy of responding, data were also collected on efficiency measures (number of sessions and number and percentage of errors to criterion), as well as on types of errors (latency, duration, and topographic). Results indicate that participants acquired the response following video modeling and could independently use the iPod. Students maintained most tasks on follow-up probe trials; however, on skills that deteriorated, students were effectively retrained with video booster sessions. (Contains 4 tables and 1 figure.)

The purpose of this study was to evaluate whether the use of a personal digital assistant (PDA), with picture, auditory, and video prompts, would serve as a portable self-prompting device to facilitate independent task performance by high school age students with moderate intellectual disabilities. A multiple probe design was used across three cooking recipes and replicated across three students to evaluate the effectiveness of the self-prompting program. Results indicate that students were able to independently use a PDA to self-prompt completion of the three cooking recipes without the need for external adult prompting, to maintain use of the device over time, and to self-adjust the levels of prompts used within and across recipes. (Contains 1 table and 5 figures.)

Single subject research methodology is commonly used and cited in special education courses and journals. This article reviews the types of single subject research designs published in eight refereed journals between 1983 and 2007 used to answer applied research questions. Single subject designs were categorized as withdrawal/reversal, time lagged, comparison, or combination designs. To analyze data for trends, data were aggregated and presented in blocks of five years. Data were used to present a description of changes in the use of single subject designs for each journal reviewed and across each type of single subject design. Though limited by the number of randomly reviewed issues, results indicate specific trends in single subject methodology. A total of 196 randomly identified journal issues containing 1,936 articles were reviewed. Of reviewed articles, 456 employed at least one single subject design and a total of 556 single subject designs were coded. Results indicate time lagged designs were published more frequently than withdrawal/reversal designs. Also, multiple baseline designs were published more frequently than multiple probe designs and replication of effects for time lagged designs occurred more often across participants/groups. For comparison designs, there was an increase in trend concurrent with an increase in published functional analysis. Data collected also indicated an increase in the use of combination designs. (Contains 6 figures and 2 tables.)

A multiple baseline design across participants was used to evaluate the effectiveness of a file box system plus self-monitoring on the organizational skills of four fourth and fifth grade students with high functioning autism (HFA) and Asperger's Syndrome (AS). Instruction took place in general education classrooms and consisted of teaching students to arrange academic materials (worksheets, note pages, study guides etc.) in a portable file box with hanging folders. Students were also taught to self-monitor their accuracy. The percentage of correctly filed items and the number of seconds it took students' to retrieve requested items were the dependent variables assessed across conditions. Results showed that the percentage of correctly filed items increased and the number of seconds required to locate specific items decreased with the use of the file system box. These findings demonstrate how a simple noninvasive and affordable classroom modification can improve performance of children with HFA and AS in general education classrooms. (Contains 1 table and 3 figures.)

In this study, a personal digital assistant (PDA) with picture, auditory, and video prompts with voice over, was evaluated as a portable self-prompting device for students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Using a multiple probe design across three cooking recipes and replicated with three students with ASD, the system was tested for its effectiveness in increasing independent performance across the multiple step tasks. In addition, data were recorded for the number and types of prompts used by the students across time. Results indicate that the students with ASD were able to adjust the prompt levels used on the PDA and to maintain their ability to use the device to independently complete recipes over time.

This study evaluated the effectiveness of video modeling to teach fire extinguishing behaviors to three young adults with moderate intellectual disabilities. A multiple probe design across three fire extinguishing behaviors and replicated across three students was used to evaluate the effectiveness of the video-based program. Results indicate that video modeling was effective in teaching fire extinguishing skills. Skills were further generalized to novel examples and levels of performance were maintained up to 52 days. (Contains 2 tables and 3 figures.)

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact of weighted vests on the amount of time 3 elementary-age students with autism, intellectual disabilities, and sensory processing abnormalities engaged in appropriate in-seat behavior. An alternating treatments design was used to examine the duration of appropriate in-seat behavior under three conditions: baseline or no vests (A), vests with no weights (B), and weighted vests (BC). Because weighted vests did not have an effect on appropriate in-seat behavior for any participant, a second experiment was conducted. Noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) was assessed within the context of a withdrawal design. NCR had an optimal effect on the participants' in-seat behavior. (Contains 2 tables and 6 figures.)

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of using a photo activity schedule book to increase independent transitioning between vocational tasks inside a school cafeteria and at a community job site. Three students with mild to moderate intellectual disabilities, enrolled in a self-contained classroom in a public high school, participated. A withdrawal design was used to evaluate the effectiveness of the photo activity schedule book on the number of independent task changes performed per session by each participant. The results of the study indicated that independent task changes were higher when the photo activity schedule book was used than when if was not used. Independent task changes also remained at high levels when the photo activity schedule book was used with novel photos to complete non-training tasks. This expands the current literature base by demonstrating the effectiveness and portability of photo activity schedules for community settings. (Contains 2 tables and 3 figures.)

This study evaluated the effectiveness of a portable DVD player plus the system of least prompts (SLP) for DVD player use as a self-prompting device to teach cooking tasks to three young adults with moderate intellectual disabilities. A multiple probe design across three cooking tasks and replicated across three students was used to evaluate the effectiveness of the portable DVD player to prompt completion of multistep tasks. Results indicate that the self-prompting, portable DVD player with the SLP was effective in teaching multistep cooking tasks that were maintained over time. (Contains 1 table and 3 figures.)

This study evaluated the acquisition of incidental and observational information presented to 6 children with autism in a small group instructional arrangement using a constant time delay (CTD) procedure. A multiple probe design across behaviors, replicated across 6 participants, was used to evaluate the effectiveness of the CTD procedure and to assess each student's ability to read another student's words and identify related pictures. Generalization was assessed in natural conditions using a pre- and post-test paradigm. Results indicate that, despite their documented deficits in social awareness and imitation, students learned observational and incidental information during small group instruction. Educational implications with regard to small group instruction are discussed.

The effects of SMART Board technology, an interactive electronic whiteboard, and a 3s constant time delay (CTD) procedure was evaluated for teaching sight word reading to students with moderate intellectual disabilties within a small group arrangment. A multiple probe design across three word sets and replicated with three students was used to evaluate the effectiveness of SMART Board technology on: (a) reading target grocery words; (b) matching grocery item photos to target grocery words; (c) reading other students' target grocery words through observational learning; and (d) matching grocery item photos to observational grocery words. Results support use of this tool to teach multiple students at one time and its effects on observational learning of non-target information.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of using picture activity schedule books to increase on-schedule and on-task behaviors of children with moderate intellectual disabilities. Four students enrolled in a self-contained classroom participated in the study. Graduated guidance, system of least prompts, and verbal prompting were used to teach students how to use the picture schedules. Percentage of on-schedule steps completed and percentage of intervals on-task were evaluated within the context of an A-BC-B-A-B withdrawal design. Stimulus generalization was assessed with novel activities in a different location and at different times during the academic day. Results showed increases in on-schedule and on-task behavior only when using the picture activity schedules. Students' on-schedule and on-task behavior generalized to novel activities, settings, and times when using the picture activity schedule books. (Contains 2 tables and 4 figures.)

Many parents of children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) report that their children have feeding problems. A body of literature targeted toward parents of children with ASD includes information about possible interventions for this problem. Most intervention suggestions within this literature have been only anecdotally reported to be effective; few research studies have addressed maladaptive feeding behaviors in children with ASD. This review synthesizes current research regarding the types of feeding problems and interventions used with children with ASD. In addition, the authors briefly discuss the literature on treating feeding problems in other populations as a means of comparison. They also point out differences in empirically supported treatments and treatments used by parents for aberrant feeding behaviors in children with ASD.

Task completion time was substantially decreased for two middle school students with a diagnosis of moderate mental retardation and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) following the presentation of high-preference items and choice via a computer-based video program. The study used an ABAB design to evaluate the effects of the program compared to tangible high-preference items presented in baseline. Students' time to complete three tasks decreased immediately following the introduction of the computer-based program. Results are discussed in terms of the advantages of this approach as one solution for providing novel and highly reinforcing activities to students with a diagnosis of ASD.

This study investigated the effectiveness of a multimedia program (interactive computer program, video captions, and still photographs) to teach 3 students with moderate intellectual disabilities to make purchases using a debit card and an automated payment machine (APM). A multiple probe design across participants was used to evaluate the effectiveness of the multimedia program. All instructional sessions occurred through simulations using video captions and still photographs replicating operation of the APM. Generalization of skills was assessed through purchasing at community stores. Results indicate that the multimedia program alone was effective in teaching generalized operation of APMs with a debit card.

Multimedia instruction was used to teach three secondary students with mild to moderate intellectual disabilities to locate grocery items by reading words on aisle signs. Results indicate that the multimedia program was effective in teaching generalized reading of the associated word pairs and location of the grocery items in the store. (Contains references.) (Author/DB)

A study evaluated use of computer-based video instruction to teach generalized reading of grocery store aisle signs and the location of the corresponding grocery items to four students (ages 9-17) mental retardation. The computer-based video program was successful in teaching generalized reading of signs and the location of items. (Contains references.) (Author/CR)

This study evaluated an hierarchical intervention with four young children with significant developmental delays. Picture cues and correspondence training were provided at three levels of intrusiveness. Two children required only less intrusive levels of instruction while the other two required the entire intervention package to reach criterion. (Contains references.) (DB)

This study evaluated the effectiveness of a brief, 2-minute pre-session stimulus preference assessment in predicting the levels of responding of four students (ages 6-9) with profound multiple disabilities. Use of the identified preferred stimulus resulted in higher levels of student responding during the instructional condition across all four students. (Contains references.) (Author/DB)

Presents a rationale for using single-subject research designs to examine the effects of therapeutic recreation (TR), offering a description of single-subject research designs, examining research requirements, explaining data analysis through visual inspection, presenting examples of single-subject research designs, and concluding that this methodology allows TR specialists to answer questions regarding their interventions that otherwise might remain unanswered. (SM)

Effect of a 4 s constant time delay procedure on motor skill completion durations was examined. Participants were four adolescents with severe mental retardation. Results indicated that data patterns between adjacent baseline and intervention phases were visually different and statistically significant in the direction of less time. (Contains references.) (Author/CR)

A study evaluated the effectiveness of a teaching package (graduated guidance and visual activity schedules) in teaching four children (ages 7-8) with autism to increase on-task and on-schedule behavior. Student performance rose to criterion levels upon introduction of the graduated guidance procedures and maintained when the picture activity book was available. (Contains references.) (Author/CR)

A study examined the acquisition of incidental information and observational learning of incidental information by 12 adolescents with moderate intellectual disabilities during school-directed systematic instruction. Results found participants learned 51.6% of the incidental information they observed during community-based or simulated dyadic instruction for a vocational response-chaining skill. (Author/CR)

A study evaluated the effect of the type of peer group on behavior associated with the happiness of five elementary students with profound multiple disabilities. Results indicated higher levels of happiness behaviors (smiles, eyes open) with typical peers than with peers with disabilities across all five students. (Author/CR)

This study of four students (ages 10-13) with mental retardation evaluated a combination audio/visual self-prompting system with an electronic, augmentative communication device that uses picture overlays and recorded speech to increase independent task completion. Results indicated a substantial difference in performance when the self-prompting device was used. (Author/CR)