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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to determine how task-oriented, relations-oriented and change-oriented leader behaviors are related to managerial effectiveness and subordinate job satisfaction, to identify incorrect findings in a recent meta-analysis of these relationships and to verify that leader problem solving is an important task-oriented behavior. Design/methodology/approach In total, 235 employees were surveyed to measure 11 specific behaviors used by their leader, and again two weeks later to measure the two outcome variables. Multiple regression analysis was used to assess how the leader behaviors are related to each outcome. Findings Task-oriented, relations-oriented and change-oriented behaviors were all related significantly to managerial effectiveness, but only relations-oriented behavior was related significantly to subordinate job satisfaction. Problem solving was the task-oriented behavior with the strongest relationship to managerial effectiveness. Recognizing was the least important relations-oriented behavior for job satisfaction. Research limitations/implications Limitations included a convenience sample, common source data and possible effects of unmeasured situational variables. Ways to avoid these limitations in future research are suggested. Practical implications The findings can be used to improve leadership training and development for most managers. Originality/value The results support the idea that examining specific leader behaviors in addition to broad meta-categories can improve leadership theory, research and training.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to assess the individual and joint influence of three distinct external leadership behaviors (i.e. networking, representing, and external monitoring) on workgroup performance and managerial effectiveness. Design/methodology/approach Data were gathered by surveying subordinates of 233 managers in various types of organizations. Findings The results of multiple regression analyses indicated that external monitoring and representing were positively related to subordinate perceptions of workgroup performance and managerial effectiveness. The effects of networking depended on a leader’s use of the other two external behaviors. Originality/value Understanding why a leader is effective in a particular context requires examining joint effects and different patterns of external behavior (Yukl, 2012). Past research on external leader behavior only examined one of the specific behaviors or examined a broadly defined behavior that included more than one of the three specific behaviors. The study provides new insight into the independent and joint effects of the three external leadership behaviors on managerial effectiveness and workgroup performance.

Recent ethical scandals involving managers in government organizations have highlighted the need for more research on ethical leadership in public sector organizations. To assess the consequences of ethical leadership, 161 managers in a large state government agency and 415 of their direct reports were surveyed, and personnel records were obtained to measure absenteeism. Results indicate that after controlling for the effects of employee characteristics, perceptions of procedural fairness, and supportive leader behavior, ethical leadership reduced absenteeism and had a positive influence on organizational commitment and willingness to report ethical problems. Implications of the findings and suggestions for future research are presented.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to examine how ethical leadership and empowering leadership are related to leader‐member exchange relations (LMX), affective commitment, and leader effectiveness.Design/methodology/approachData were collected using questionnaires filled out by 259 subordinates of public and private sector managers. Relationships among variables were analyzed using structural equation modeling.FindingsThe results indicated that ethical leadership and empowering leadership have positive associations with LMX, subordinate affective commitment, and perception of leader effectiveness.Originality/valueThis study is the first to examine the independent and joint relationships of empowering leadership and ethical leadership with leadership effectiveness and the mediating role of LMX.

Executive Overview Extensive research on leadership behavior during the past half century has yielded many different behavior taxonomies and a lack of clear results about effective behaviors. One purpose of this article is to describe what has been learned about effective leadership behavior in organizations. A hierarchical taxonomy with four meta-categories and 15 specific component behaviors was used to interpret results in the diverse and extensive literature and to identify conditions that influence the effectiveness of these behaviors. Limitations and potential extensions of the hierarchical taxonomy are discussed, and suggestions for improving research on effective leadership behavior are provided.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to determine if the relationships found between a leader's behavior and the quality of the exchange relationship with a subordinate can be replicated using a different measure of leader‐member exchange (LMX) and a different sample.Design/methodology/approachThe paper reports the result of a survey study with a sample of 239 employees who rated specific behaviors of their manager and the quality of the LMX relationship.FindingsIn a regression analysis that included several other important leader behaviors, supporting, delegating, and leading by example were statistically significant predictors of LMX.Research limitations/implicationsThe findings suggest that the positive relationship found in several earlier studies between LMX and a broad measure of transformational leadership was not interpreted correctly.Practical implicationsThe results from this study identify specific leader behaviors that are likely to be useful for developing a stronger exchange relationship with individual subordinates.Social implicationsThe leader behaviors identified in the present study also have clear implications for the effectiveness of top executives and political leaders.Originality/valueMore types of leadership behavior were measured than in earlier LMX studies, the limitations of broadly‐defined behaviors were avoided, and a different measure of LMX was used than in most prior studies on the relationship of leader behaviors to LMX.

The appropriate way to define and measure ethical leadership has been a source of conceptual confusion in the leadership literature. Different measures have been developed, but they all have limitations. Some questionnaires are missing key indicators of ethical leadership, or they include behaviors that do not seem directly relevant. In this study, the authors assess the validity of a new questionnaire for measuring essential aspects of ethical leadership independently of other types of leader behavior. The research also examines how ethical leadership is related to leader–member exchange and work unit performance. Although the primary purpose of these analyses is to assess criterion-related validity for the new questionnaire, the results help answer important questions about the benefits of ethical leadership. The authors found that ethical leadership makes a small but significant contribution to the explanation of leader–member exchange and managerial effectiveness.

This study used flexible leadership theory (FLT) as a basis to examine the extent to which a firm’s long-term financial prosperity depends on three performance determinants: human capital, efficiency, and innovative adaptation. Based on FLT predictions, we expected that the effect of human capital on firm performance would be mediated by efficiency and innovative adaptation. We compared the theoretical model with two alternative models using structural equation modeling. The sample involved 104 Fortune 500 firms across 15 industries over a 10-year period. Information on financial indicators was obtained from the Research Insight database (Compustat), and ratings of human capital talent were obtained from a Fortune data set (America’s Most Admired Companies). Results indicated that the effects of human capital on long-term financial performance were partially mediated by efficiency and innovative adaptation.

Despite the widespread use of multi-source behavioral feedback as a method of leadership development, little research has been conducted to identify facilitating conditions that can make the feedback more effective. This article reports results from a longitudinal field experiment on the effects of providing feedback about influence behavior to middle managers in the corporate office of a supermarket chain. Managers who only attended a single feedback workshop were compared to managers who attended a second feedback workshop several months after the initial one. A significant increase in the use of “core” influence tactics with subordinates and peers was found only for the managers who received repeated feedback, and they were also rated higher in overall effectiveness by their bosses. Practical implications for leadership development and suggestions for future research are discussed.

PurposeLeader empathy, ethical values, and relations‐oriented behavior all appear to be relevant for effective leadership, but nobody has examined how all three variables are jointly related to leader‐member exchange quality (LMX). The purpose of this study is to examine these relationships and test a proposed model describing them.Design/methodology/approachData were collected with a questionnaire from subordinates of leaders in several organizations, and SEM path analysis was used to test alternative models.FindingsThe results indicated that a leader's relations‐oriented behavior fully mediated the relationship between leader empathy on LMX and partially mediated the relationship between ethical leadership and LMX. Recommendations for future research to verify and extend the results were provided.Originality/valueThis is the first empirical study to simultaneously examine the complex relationships among these four different aspects of leadership (i.e. a skill, values, behaviors, and exchange relationship). The authors' measure of ethical leadership minimizes confounding with other constructs, which is a problem in earlier studies. The practical implication is that leader empathy and ethical leadership should be included in leadership selection and development programs.

In this article we explain different conceptions of flexible and adaptive leadership and the reasons why such leadership is essential in today’s organizations. Then we briefly describe several streams of research that provide useful knowledge about flexible and adaptive leadership. It was not feasible to provide a comprehensive and detailed review for each research stream, but we describe the primary research methods, summarize major findings, and provide some practical guidelines for leaders on how to become more flexible and adaptive. Finally, we point out limitations of the available research and make recommendations for future research.

A field experiment was conducted to assess whether coaching would enhance the effectiveness of a feedback workshop for store managers in a regional supermarket chain. The experimental group of managers received individual coaching several weeks after attending a feedback workshop. The control group of managers also attended a feedback workshop but did not receive the follow-up coaching. Each manager’s use of proactive influence tactics was rated by subordinates (department managers) before the interventions and several months afterward. Coaching significantly increased the use of collaboration with subordinates, but results for the other three “core” tactics were mixed. Likely reasons for the lack of stronger results are identified, and implications for practice are discussed.

PurposeMany studies have examined outcomes and antecedents of leader‐member exchange (LMX), but few studies have explored how LMX is related to specific types of leadership behaviors. The purpose of this paper is to examines a more comprehensive set of leader behaviors than any previous study on LMX.Design/methodology/approachThis paper reports the result of a survey study with a sample of 248 respondents from a diverse set of industries, organizations, and occupations. Respondents rated specific behaviors of their manager and the quality of the exchange relationship.FindingsFour of the five relations‐oriented behaviors (supporting, recognizing, consulting, and delegating) were strongly related to LMX. The task‐oriented behaviors (clarifying, planning, monitoring) were not significantly related to LMX. Results for the transformational behaviors were mixed. The relations‐oriented aspects of transformational leadership appear to have more influence on LMX than the change‐oriented aspects.Originality/valueThe present study clarifies the relationship between leader behavior and LMX. Practical implications of the findings for managers are discussed. Some recommendations for future research are provided.

This essay conveys some of the author's ideas about the influence of leaders on organizational learning. Limitations of some well known leadership theories for explaining this influence are described, and ideas for developing more comprehensive and accurate theories are suggested. Examples of specific ways leaders can influence organizational learning are provided. The methods used for most of the research on the subject are evaluated, and some alternative methods are suggested.

The flexible leadership theory explains how top executives and other leaders can influence the financial performance of a business organization. Three key determinants of financial performance are efficiency, adaptation, and human capital. A wide range of leadership behaviors, management programs, structural forms, and external initiatives can be used to influence these performance determinants. Management programs and systems are usually more effective when they are mutually compatible and appropriate for the situation. Effective performance requires a cooperative effort by the multiple leaders in an organization, and they must be flexible and adaptive as the situation changes. The theory provides a way to integrate findings from several different and largely separate literatures.

We conducted four studies to evaluate the extended version of the Influence Behavior Questionnaire (IBQ), which measures proactive tactics used to influence people in organizations. The results provide support for the reliability and validity of the 11 tactic scales in the newest version of the IBQ. The questionnaire has widespread potential applications for both research and practice, and it is the most comprehensive and best validated measure of proactive influence tactics. However, the IBQ is not equally useful for all purposes, and we describe some limitations and potential problems that could reduce the validity of the scales.

In today's rapidly changing and competitive business environment, organizations and their leaders must pay attention to an asset that is sometimes given short shrift—human capital, the skills and motivation of the organization's employees. Leaders at all levels can have a strong influence on human capital through a combination of relationsoriented behaviors and human resource management programs.

A recent survey indicates that many of today's business leaders believe their organizations are not only inadequate at implementing strategy but also unlikely to get better at this critical challenge. Other research on managers has identified four leadership behaviors that are useful in enhancing the execution of business strategy.

Psychological empowerment is the perception that workers can help determine their own work roles, accomplish meaningful work, and influence important decisions. Empowerment has been studied from different perspectives, including employee perceptions, leadership behaviors, and management programs. Despite positive rhetoric, programs designed to increase empowerment seldom achieve the benefits promised. Inconclusive and seemingly contradictory outcomes stem from the fact that few companies give employees significant control and access to management information. A half century of research suggests that empowerment strategies can offer real benefits. We outline facilitating conditions for effective empowerment, including characteristics of organizations, leaders, employees, and the work itself.

In today's turbulent business environment, being able to respond in a timely way to emerging threats and opportunities is crucial to an organization's survival and prosperity. An organization's effectiveness can be improved by leader decisions that facilitate innovation and adaptation.

Progress in developing theories of interpersonal influence depends on the identification of meaningful and measurable constructs for classifying influence behavior. We assessed the construct validity and relative effectiveness of two new influence tactics with a field survey study, an incident study, and a laboratory experiment. The confirmatory factor analysis of data from the survey study indicated that collaboration and apprising were distinct from nine proactive tactics identified in earlier research. Additional evidence for construct validity was provided by a comparison of tactics in terms of expected differences in influence outcomes, frequency of use, and differential use with subordinates and peers. Managers who understand the differences among the tactics will be more effective in influencing people in organizations. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

For over a half century, leadership researchers have attempted to identify the aspects of leadership that improve organizational performance, yet the answer is still elusive. In this commentary, we discuss several reasons for the slow progress. There is a lack of collaborative effort between academics and practitioners, and the leadership theory and research has lacked adequate emphasis on strategic issues, explanatory processes, and the moderating effects of the situation. We discuss these shortcomings and ways to remedy them.

A few years ago, a group of Singaporean expatriates were signed to work in a coastal city in China. Being offspring of Chinese, they spoke perfect Mandarin and could easily mix with any Chinese on the street. Therefore, they were confident that they would not have any difficulties working with their counterparts in China. Their Chinese counterparts felt alike. However, a year later, the two parties had experienced so many difficulties working together that the frustrated Singaporeans were ready to pull out entirely. The joint venture was on the verge of collapse. At that point, the two parties finally sat down and examined the reasons for their frustration. They realized that cultural differences, together with differing expectations based on disparate experiences of political and management systems, were the major causes of the ongoing problems. Fortunately, the timely realization of the differences enabled them to review their assumptions and adjust their working attitudes toward each other according to the new understanding. Before long, the two parties had solved their problems. With improved communication, the joint venture has not only survived, but also prospered. The above incident happened between managers from the Mainland and Chinesespeaking managers from Singapore, where Chinese account for 70 percent of the population. Such incidents happen even more frequently with Chinese-speaking expatriates from Hong Kong or Taiwan, where Chinese dominate the populations. In fact, most Western multinationals that assign overseas Chinese expatriates to Mainland China do so in the belief that they will experience less cultural distance than their Western counterparts, and that a common language will facilitate communication. However, anecdotal evidence (such as the incident described above) show that Chinese expatriates in China can encounter just as many adjustment problems as Western expatriates. At times, the ‘‘culture shock’’ may be more severe—

Deux recherches exploratoires ont ete initiees pour etudier les differences interculturelles dans l’efficacite percue de diverses strategies destinees a obtenir de la part d’un superieur l’approbation d’un changement qui lui est soumis, ou a resister a un changement envisage par un patron. La premiere etude a compare des managers des Etats-Unis, de Suisse et de Chine continentale, et la deuxieme a remplace la Suisse par Hong Kong. On a retrouve dans la seconde etude l’essentiel des resultats de la premiere (91%) concernant les cadres americains et chinois. Les differences interculturelles dans l’evaluation de l’efficacite des strategies etaient en phase avec les traditions et les valeurs culturelles. Les managers occidentaux jugeaient plus efficaces que les Chinois les strategies directes, orientees vers la tâche, et moins efficaces celles mettant en jeu les relations personnelles, l’evitement ou une approche informelle. Two exploratory studies were conducted to investigate cross-cultural differences in the perceived effectiveness of various influence tactics for gaining approval from a boss for a proposed change, or for resisting a change initiated by a boss. The first study compared managers in the United States, Switzerland, and mainland China. The second study compared managers in the United States, Hong Kong, and mainland China. Most results (91%) for the American and Chinese managers in Study 1 were replicated in Study 2. The cross-cultural differences in rated effectiveness of tactics were consistent with cultural values and traditions. Direct, task-oriented tactics were rated more effective by western managers than by Chinese managers, whereas tactics involving personal relations, avoidance, or an informal approach were rated less effective.

A major problem in leadership research and theory has been lack of agreement about which behavior categories are relevant and meaningful. It is difficult to integrate findings from five decades of research unless the many diverse leadership behaviors can be integrated in a parsimonious and meaningful conceptual framework. An emerging solution is a hierarchical taxonomy with three metacategories (task, relations, and change behavior). Confirmatory factor analysis of a behavior description questionnaire found more support for this taxonomy than for alternative models.

This paper reports the preliminary findings of a planned twelve-culture study designed to empirically test whether cultural values and social beliefs can be used to predict choice of influence tact...

A cross-cultural study was conducted with managers from the United States and China to investigate differences in influence behavior. Managers rated the effectiveness of different influence tactics for several representative situations. Significant differences were found between American and Chinese managers in a large, multinational company with facilities in both countries. The results were replicated for a second sample consisting of several organizations in each country. Rational persuasion and exchange were rated as more effective by American managers than by Chinese managers. Coalition tactics, upward appeals, and gifts were rated more effective by Chinese managers than by American managers. The influence tactics accurately predicted nationality for 94% of the respondents.

Few studies have identified determinants of delegation and consultation. To investigate this question further, we surveyed managers and subordinates in two samples and interviewed managers individually or in focus groups. The use of delegation and consultation with individual subordinates was determined in part by characteristics of the subordinates and the manager–subordinate relationship. More delegation was used for a subordinate who was competent, shared the leader's task objectives, had worked longer for the manager, was a supervisor also, and had a favorable exchange relationship with the manager. Consultation with a subordinate was predicted by goal congruence, subordinate job level, and quality of the leader–member exchange relationship. The managers acknowledged that developing subordinates and empowering them to do their work were important reasons for delegation, but many managers were reluctant to give up control over important decisions or assign an important task to an inexperienced subordinate. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Theories of transformational and charismatic leadership provide important insights about the nature of effective leadership, but most of the theories have weaknesses in the conceptualization and measurement of leadership processes. The limitations include use of simplistic two-factor models, omission of relevant behaviours, focus on dyadic processes, assumption of heroic leadership, and overreliance on weak methods. I discuss these weaknesses and present results from a study on leader behaviour dimensions to clarify some of my concerns.

Two content factors (issue importance and feasibility) were manipulated for agents in a 2 × 2 factorial experiment using a role-play exercise with 364 students in management courses. A path analysis provided support for the causal model, which specifies that agent perception of importance and feasibility affect the agent's influence behavior, which affects the target's perception of importance and feasibility, which affects the outcome of the influence attempt (target commitment to carry out the request). The study provides the first evidence that different forms of rational persuasion have independent effects and that target perception of issue importance and feasibility mediate the effect of agent influence behavior on target commitment.

Influence incidents described either by agents or targets were coded for the presence of 9 influence tactics, and the outcome was coded in terms of commitment, compliance, or resistance. Agent power and content factors for an incident were measured with a short questionnaire. This study is the first to show that influence tactics, agent power, and content factors independently affect influence outcomes. Target commitment was more likely when the request was important and enjoyable to implement, and the agent had strong referent power, used consultation, inspirational appeals, or a strong form of rational persuasion, and did not use pressure.

A field study was conducted to determine whether the behaviors in the multiple-linkage model are related to leadership effectiveness and advancement, whether these criteria are predicted better by leader behavior descriptions from subordinates than by leader self-reports, and whether the results are influenced by the level of analysis. Leader behavior descriptions were obtained from the leaders and their subordinates; data on advancement and effectiveness were obtained from superiors, peers, and subordinates. The results showed that leader effectiveness was related more closely to subordinate descriptions of leader behavior than to leader self-reported behavior. Behavior descriptions from the two sources were equally effective in predicting a manager's advancement in the organization. The leader behaviors that related most strongly to managerial effectiveness also related most strongly to advancement. There was substantial convergence in results for different levels of analysis.

Only a few studies have examined the relationship between influence tactics and objectives, and the results were inconsistent. The present study employed two different research methods to determine how often people use nine influence tactics to attain five influence objectives with subordinates, peers, and superiors. One method was a survey on which managers reported their use of each tactic for each type of objective. The other method was a content analysis of incidents in which influence attempts in a variety of organizations were described from the perspective of the agent or target. The results showed that managers seek different things from subordinates, peers, and superiors. A different pattern of influence tactics was used for each type of influence objective, and the pattern varied by direction. Implications for managers were discussed.

Leadership research has grown over the past decades, but its growth has presented challenges in quality and robustness of leadership theories and methods. This Panel Symposium invites former recipi...

This leadership panel symposium will provide students and junior faculty the opportunity to discuss their leadership research in an informal, friendly setting with prominent leadership scholars. Th...

Modern organizations are confronted with an increasingly complex world, and many of the challenges involve social change and environmental issues. Effective leadership is essential for coping with these social and environmental problems. In this article, we briefly describe a conceptual framework of leadership processes and some specific leadership behaviors that are helpful for understanding how to manage social change and deal with environmental concerns in private and public sector organizations

This article describes a field study conducted to test a conceptual model on situational determinants of networking behavior. The findings indicated support for a new measure of internal and external networking behavior. Consistent with our model, external networking was affected by managerial function and level, but internal networking was affected only by managerial level. Dependencies partially mediated the effects of managerial function and level on networking behaviors. The amount of dependency on different types of network members also varied by level and function. However, the reasons given by managers for dependency on key network members were similar for internal and external networks. Rate of advancement for managers was predicted weakly by their internal and external networking.

This study involved analysis of incidents describing influence attempts from the perspective of an agent or a target. Influence behavior in the incidents was coded into nine influence tactics. A conceptual framework was presented to explain the selection and sequencing of tactics, and the model was used to derive specific hypotheses for individual tactics. Analysis of tactic combinations revealed that some tactics were used together much more often than others. Consistent with the model, some tactics were used more in initial influence attempts, and other tactics were used more in follow-up influence attempts. Differences in the use of tactics with subordinates, peers, and superiors were also consistent with the model, and the results verified directional differences found in earlier research with questionnaires.

Charisma is a Greek word that means “divinely inspired gift,” such as the ability to perform miracles or predict future events. The sociologist Max Weber (1947) used the term to describe a form of influence based not on tradition or formal authority but rather on follower perceptions that a leader is endowed with exceptional qualities. For many years, charisma was mostly the province of researchers studying political leadership and the leadership of social movements or religious cults. Charisma was rarely considered within the literature on organizational leadership until Bob House proposed a theory of charismatic leadership for leaders in large private and public sector organizations.

A field study was conducted to discover how a manager's use of nine different influence tactics is related to target task commitment and the manager's effectiveness. The variables were measured with a questionnaire filled out by subordinates, peers, and the boss of each manager. The most effective tactics were rational persuasion, inspirational appeal, and consultation; the least effective were pressure, coalition, and legitimating. Ingratiation and exchange were moderately effective for influencing subordinates and peers but were not effective for influencing superiors. Inspirational appeal, ingratiation, and pressure were used most in a downward direction; personal appeal, exchange, and legitimating were used most in a lateral direction, coalitions were used most in lateral and upward directions; and rational persuasion was used most in an upward direction

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . ....... . . .. . . . . . . . . . TRAINING NEEDS ANALySIS . . ...... . Organizational Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . Task Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Person Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . .. . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . .. . . .... . . . . . . DESIGN OF TRAINING . TRAINING METHODS .. . . . . .. ...... , ...... . . . . . . . .. . . . ....... ... . . . . . Simulations and Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . High-Technology Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Behavior Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TRAINEE CHARACTERISTICS . . . . .. . . . . . . . ... . . . . Trainee Ability and Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Trainee Mot ivation, Attitude, and Expectations . . . . . . . . . ..... .. AptitudeTreatment Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PRETRAINING ENVIRONMENT . .. . . . .. . ....... . Environmental Cues and Signals ...... . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Two studies were conducted to replicate and extend previous exploratory research by Kipnis, Schmidt, and Wilkinson (1980) on influence tactics and objectives in organizations. A new questionnaire was developed that included measures of important influence tactics and objectives omitted in the earlier research. Whereas the earlier research used only agent self-reports of influence behavior, the present research used both agent and target reports. Differences in downward, lateral, and upward influence attempts were replicated more for data from agents than for data from targets. Direction of influence had a stronger effect on influence objectives than on influence tactics. Despite some differences due to data source and direction of influence, the relative frequency of use for the 8 influence tactics was remarkably similar across conditions. Consultation and rational persuasion were the tactics used most frequently, regardless of the direction of influence.