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The focus of this chapter is an examination of the relationship between cognitive maps and travel behavior in urban environments. We do this examination incrementally, beginning with clarifications of terms relating to cognitive maps, cognitive mapping and wayfinding. We then emphasize transportation-related issues such as cognizing of transportation networks, path selection, wayfinding and navigation. We further examine problems of selecting paths to destinations by using existing transport networks. We also introduce concerns relating to the role of trip purpose in path selection and discuss how different purposes spawn different path or route selection strategies. In a final section we briefly examine the interaction between cognitive maps, cognitive mapping, and current practice of travel choice modeling.

The authors present an examination of the relationship between cognitive maps and travel behavior in urban environments. They discuss transportation-related issues such as the cognition of transportation networks, path selection, wayfinding and navigation. They examine problems of selecting paths to destinations through the use of existing transportation networks. The authors discuss concerns relating to the role of trip purpose in path selection, looking at how different purposes spawn different path or route selection strategies. The authors conclude with a look at how cognitive maps, cognitive mapping, and travel choice modeling interact.

The demand for transportation services is a derived demand based on the needs of people to perform daily and other episodic activities. There have been two dominant approaches to investigating this derived demand: (a) studies focused on the spatial behavior of people, that is, the recorded behavior of people as they move between origins and destinations (e.g., Hanson & Schwab, 1995), and (b) an examination of the decision-making and choice processes that result in spatially manifest behaviors (e.g. Ben-Akiva & Lerman, 1985: Ortuzar & Willumsen, 1994). The former approach has been typified by the development of methods for describing and analyzing activity/travel patterns. The latter is typified both by the development of methods for describing and modeling the final outcomes of decision processes but paying little attention to the cognitive processes involved in determining the final decision concerning movement in space, and behavioral process models paying particular attention to the cognitive factors involved in decision-making as well as to the final choice act (Golledge & Stimson, 1997).

The demand for transportation services is a derived demand based on the needs of people to perform daily and other episodic activities. There have been two dominant approaches to investigating this derived demand: (a) studies focused on the spatial behavior of people, that is, the recorded behavior of people as they move between origins and destinations (e.g., Hanson & Schwab, 1995), and (b) an examination of the decision-making and choice processes that result in spatially manifest behaviors (e.g. Ben-Akiva & Lerman, 1985: Ortuzar & Willumsen, 1994). The former approach has been typified by the development of methods for describing and analyzing activity/travel patterns. The latter is typified both by the development of methods for describing and modeling the final outcomes of decision processes but paying little attention to the cognitive processes involved in determining the final decision concerning movement in space, and behavioral process models paying particular attention to the cognitive factors involved in decision-making as well as to the final choice act

Do owned objects become more valued if lost and found? In Experiment 1, Prolific participants (n = 128) imagined having lost a laptop. The results showed a preference for finding the laptop instead of replacing it with a new at no cost. The preference was even stronger if the laptop had been used longer (2 months instead of 2 days) and was certain to be found without any cost. Experiment 2 recruited additional Prolific participants to investigate the role of positive affect evoked by finding or expecting to find a lost object. In a Lost condition (n = 50), participants imagined having lost an expensive pair of gloves which later was found. Compared to a No Loss condition (n = 50), preference to keep the gloves was higher. Increased value and positive affect partially mediated this preference. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Household travel behavior entails interdependent deliberate decisions, as well as the execution of routines not preceded by deliberate decisions. Furthermore, travel decisions are dependent on choices to participate in activities. Because of the complexity of the decision-making process in which individuals are engaged, computational-process models (CPMs) are promising means of implementing behavioral principles which unlike other disaggregate modelling approaches do not rely on a utility-maximizing framework. A conceptual framework is proposed as the basis of a CPM interfaced with the geographical information system ARC/INFO. How to model households' travel behavior is illustrated in a case study of a single household in which one member started telecommuting.

Models of households' travel choices are an important focus of research. For some time it has been realized that such models need to incorporate how travel depends on activity choices. It is argued that production system models constitute an alternative or necessary complementary approach if the goal is to develop models of interdependent activity and travel choices, or activity scheduling, which are based on behavioral-science theories of higher cognitive processes. Several computational-process models (CPMs) which implement production systems as computer programs are reviewed. Currently, no encompassing CPM exists but some may be possible to integrate in a descriptive model of activity scheduling.

Travel behavior entails several interrelated decisions made by people, as well as the execution of routines not preceded by deliberate decisions. Furthermore, travel decisions are dependent on choices to participate in activities. A conceptual framework is proposed as the basis of a computational-process model (CPM). Because of the complexity of the decision-making process in which individuals are engaged, CPMs are promising alternatives to disaggregate discrete choice modelling with its limited ability to account for interrelated decisions and its reliance on an unrealistic utility-maximizing framework. Empirical support for the proposed conceptual framework is presented in the paper from case studies of telecommuting households in Sacramento, CA. The value of geographical information systems (GIS) in these empirical tests is demonstrated.

Travel behavior entails several interrelated decisions made by people, as well as the execution of routines not preceded by deliberate decisions. Furthermore, travel decisions are dependent on choices to participate in activities. After a brief review of research aiming at describing activity/travel patterns and approaches in which activity/travel decisions are modelled by means of discrete-choice modelling techniques, a conceptual framework is proposed as a background to an evaluation of several computational-process models. Further needed developments of these models are discussed, as well as the use of geographical information systems in their operationalization and application to traffic planning.

Research suggests that for many people happiness is being able to make the routines of everyday life work, such that positive feelings dominate over negative feelings resulting from daily hassles. In line with this, a survey of work commuters in the three largest urban areas of Sweden show that satisfaction with the work commute contributes to overall happiness. It is also found that feelings during the commutes are predominantly positive or neutral. Possible explanatory factors include desirable physical exercise from walking and biking, as well as that short commutes provide a buffer between the work and private spheres. For longer work commutes, social and entertainment activities either increase positive affects or counteract stress and boredom. Satisfaction with being employed in a recession may also spill over to positive experiences of work commutes. (Contains 5 tables and 3 footnotes.)

In 3 experiments, the authors investigated learning of the value of money from product prices in an unfamiliar currency when the prices are proportional to quantity. In support of the second stage of a hypothesized 2-stage process of learning, Experiment 1, in which 32 undergraduates participated, shows that response times for inferences of quantity are longer when participants are presented with quantity-price pairs than when they are presented with price-quantity pairs. Experiments 2 and 3, in which 54 and 34 undergraduates participated, respectively, show that (a) stochastic price variation causes systematic errors in the learning of unit prices from quantity-price pairs as a result of judgmental regression effects and (b) in support of the 2-stage learning hypothesis, inferences of quantity are the inverse of the learned unit prices.

In 4 experiments, undergraduates made hypothetical investment choices. In Experiment 1, participants paid more attention to the volatility of individual assets than to the volatility of aggregated portfolios. The results of Experiment 2 show that most participants diversified even when this increased risk because of covariation between the returns of individual assets. In Experiment 3, nearly half of those who seemingly attempted to minimize risk diversified even when this increased risk. These results indicate that novice investors neglect covariation when diversifying across investment alternatives. Experiment 4 established that naive diversification follows from motivation to minimize risk and showed that covariation neglect was not significantly reduced by informing participants about how covariation affects portfolio risk but was reduced by making participants systematically calculate aggregate returns for diversified portfolios. In order to counteract naive diversification, novice investors need to be better informed about the rationale underlying recommendations to diversify.

In European countries, field studies investigate how citizens acquire knowledge of the new currency, the euro. In 3 laboratory experiments, the authors recruited 168 undergraduates to examine whether such accurate knowledge is acquired from learning prices in the new currency. The results show fast learning of prices of duration of cellular phone calls (quantity) when the prices were proportional to quantity. Inferences of call duration from given prices were likewise found to be accurate. Lower accuracy was however observed for one-to-many mappings of quantity on price and the inverse one-to-many mappings of price on quantity. Price variation may be an important reason for the difficulty in learning the value of the new currency observed in field studies.

To authenticate to the full-text of this article, please visit this link: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2009.00583.x Byline: Lars-Olof Johansson (*), Daniel Eek (*), Tuomo Caprali (*), Tommy Garling (*) Abstract: In a survey questionnaire, 81 Swedish managers working in the private and public sectors were presented with scenarios in which a manager chose among inefficient (i.e., economically worse) alternatives, implying equal rewards to subordinates; and efficient (i.e., economically better) alternatives, implying unequal rewards. The managers also rated 26 different emotion words, describing their responses to the inequality of rewards in the scenarios. The results showed stronger outward-directed and inward-directed negative emotions, and weaker inward-directed positive emotions when the inequality of rewards increased. Furthermore, negative emotions were found to mediate the choices among efficient and inefficient alternatives. Author Affiliation: (*)Goteborg UniversityGoteborg, Sweden Article note: (2) Lars-Olof Johansson, Department of Psychology, Goteborg University, Box 500, 40530 Goteborg, Sweden. E-mail: lars-olof.johansson@psy.gu.se

Knowledge and confidence in one's own knowledge of climate change was investigated among experts, journalists, politicians, and laypersons. Subsamples of 65 experts, 72 environmental journalists, 145 politicians being chairs of environmental committees, and 621 laypersons in Sweden responded to survey questions concerning current climate state, causes, and consequences of climate change. Experts presented the highest level of knowledge, followed by journalists, politicians, and laypersons. In all the groups, knowledge of causes was greater than that of climate state and of future consequences, and among the latter knowledge was less of health consequences than that of weather and sea/glacier consequences. Also, experts expressed the highest level of confidence in their own knowledge, followed by journalists, politicians, and laypersons. Nevertheless, the adjustment of confidence in one's own knowledge to actual knowledge was somewhat higher among journalists than among experts. Keywords: knowledge of climate change; confidence in knowledge

Three experiments were conducted on 247 students of Goteborg University to study the factor of money illusion in financial decision-making. The effects of nominal variables on the students' expectations of stock price shifts and on their trading decisions were studied.

To link to full-text access for this article, visit this link: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2006.01.007 Byline: Lars-Olof Johansson, Mathias Gustafsson, Lars Olsson, Tommy Garling Keywords: Allocation decisions; Third-party fairness; Self-interest; Efficient resource use; Social dilemma; Goal conflicts Abstract: In two experiments participants allocated a resource between themselves, one privileged, and one unprivileged group. Conflicts were induced between 'third-party fairness' (difference in payoff to the two groups) and efficient resource use. Experiment 1 employed 42 undergraduates making multi-stage allocation decisions. Fairness was varied at three levels and self-interest, operationalized as the political motive of win votes, at two levels. Adverse effects of fairness on preserving the resource were found. In Experiment 2 another 48 undergraduates performed a similar task. Self-interest was now operationalized as a financial motive. The results showed that participants reduced their resource use when neither fairness nor self-interest was salient. A regression analysis demonstrated consistent adverse effects of fairness on resource use controlling for efficient resource use and total group payoff. It was concluded that fairness causes decision makers to overuse resources, although they are unwilling to totally deplete a resource and will make compromises. Author Affiliation: Goteborg University, Gothenburg, Sweden Article History: Received 6 July 2005; Revised 15 December 2005; Accepted 9 January 2006

To link to full-text access for this article, visit this link: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2006.04.002 Byline: Ted Martin Hedesstrom, Henrik Svedsater, Tommy Garling Keywords: Premium pension; Heuristic choice rules; Internet-based survey Abstract: The results of previous analyses of citizens' actual choices of mutual funds in the Swedish compulsory public pension system were replicated in an Internet-based survey of fictitious choices among fund categories. The sample consisted of 392 university employees. Findings indicated a possible default bias, the use of a diversification heuristic, a home bias, and the use of a 1/n heuristic. Involvement in the fund choice, measured by self-rating scales, increased with the amount to invest but decreased with age. Involvement decreased the likelihood of choosing the default fund and was positively correlated with the number of funds included in a portfolio. Home bias and the use of a 1/n heuristic was however unaffected by involvement and by having previous stock market investment experience. Efforts to better inform investors about how to diversify are warranted. Author Affiliation: Goteborg University, Gothenburg, Sweden Article History: Received 8 July 2005; Revised 6 April 2006; Accepted 27 April 2006

Social-dilemma research has shown that imposing sanctions on defection may increase cooperation, a principle behind attempts to solve real-world social dilemmas. Yet sanctioning systems are often difficult to implement: They are unpopular and often have large surveillance and enforcement costs. A new sanctioning system, intentionally punishing defection intermittently for some but not all group members, is shown to increase cooperation among those not punished, a finding labeled the spillover effect. This study suggests that the effect cannot be attributed simply to cooperative tendencies, as factors affecting cooperation do not affect the effect's size. The benefits of such a sanctioning system, which preserves the characteristics of social dilemmas, could include minimization of surveillance and enforcement costs, and greater public acceptability.

The present study investigates how households' social comparisons of their economic situation affect purchase decisions. In structured telephone interviews, participants (n = 109) answered questions about purchases of durable goods and groceries. In line with the hypothesis, social comparisons had an effect on purchase decisions of durable goods when controlling for actual economic situation. Households that considered themselves to be worse off economically than others reported fewer purchases of durable goods, perceived the impact on their economy of their latest purchase to be greater, and planned purchases more carefully than did households that considered themselves better off economically than others. Also in line with the hypothesis, for purchases of groceries, households' actual economic situation was more important than social comparisons.

The impact of household's economic situation on household consumption, aspiration level and social comparison is examined from the results of household survey of metropolitan area in Sweden.

The effect of framing and priming on willingness to pay for non use value is examined in two Swedish studies. In first study, the expected contribution was more than or a less than a valuable service. In the other study, respondents recalled buying something worthy or unworthy of the money spent.

The aim of this study was to investigate how cooperation can be facilitated in the real-world social dilemma of choosing to commute by automobile rather than by public transport. A survey of 335 drivers was carried out before and during an 8-day temporary freeway closure in Osaka, Japan. The results showed that the frequency of switching to public transport during the closure was inversely related to the frequency of automobile commuting before the closure. Furthermore, drivers who more frequently commuted by automobile overestimated commuting time by public transport to a larger extent than did drivers who commuted less frequently by automobile. At the same time, the larger the overestimation the more likely were drivers to change their perception of commute time. It is suggested that a temporary structural change, such as a freeway closure, may be an important catalyst that triggers cooperation in a social dilemma.

Byline: Henrik Kristensen (1,2), Tommy Garling (1) Keywords: negotiation; price; anchor point; reference point Abstract: Based on the theoretical assumptions that counteroffers are generated through an anchoring-and-adjustment process and that offers are perceived as gains or losses relative to a reference point, predictions were made of how, in a price negotiation, the size of counteroffers vary with proposed selling prices and reservation prices. The predictions were confirmed in two experiments. In Experiment 1, 64 undergraduate students of business administration playing the role of buyers of condominiums were presented proposed selling prices and asked to give a counteroffer which a hypothetical seller would accept or reject. A reference point was induced by telling subjects their reservation price. Before giving a counteroffer subjects were asked to indicate whether it was higher or lower than an arbitrary anchor point. In four different groups of subjects, high vs. low reference point was crossed with high vs. low anchor point. The results showed as expected that the counteroffers were higher for a high than for a low anchor point, and higher for a high reference point when the anchor point was perceived as a gain than for a low reference point when the anchor point was perceived as a loss. In Experiment 2 in which another 48 undergraduate students of business administration participated, the anchor points were the proposed selling prices and the reference point (reservation price) was manipulated by providing estimates of the market price. The results were as predicted, thus suggesting that the proposed selling prices operated as anchor points and that the estimated market prices affected the reservation prices (reference points) so that the selling prices and estimated market prices jointly affected the counteroffers. Author Affiliation: (1) Department of Psychology, Goteborg University, Sweden (2) Department of Business Administration, School of Economics and Management, Lund University, Sweden Article History: Registration Date: 09/10/2004

Byline: Moshe Ben-Akiva (1), Daniel McFadden (2), Tommy Garling (3), Dinesh Gopinath (4), Joan Walker (5), Denis Bolduc (6), Axel Borsch-Supan (7), Philippe Delquie (8), Oleg Larichev (9), Taka Morikawa (10), Amalia Polydoropoulou (11), Vithala Rao (12) Keywords: Rationality; behavioral decision theory; psychological factors; latent constructs; choice modeling Abstract: We review the case against the standard model of rational behavior and discuss the consequences of various 'anomalies' of preference elicitation. A general theoretical framework that attempts to disentangle the various psychological elements in the decision-making process is presented. We then present a rigorous and general methodology to model the theoretical framework, explicitly incorporating psychological factors and their influences on choices. This theme has long been deemed necessary by behavioral researchers, but is often ignored in demand models. The methodology requires the estimation of an integrated multi-equation model consisting of a discrete choice model and the latent variable model system. We conclude with a research agenda to bring the theoretical framework into fruition. Author Affiliation: (1) Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA (2) University of California, Berkeley (3) Goteborg University, Sweden (4) Mercer Management Consulting, USA (5) Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA (6) Universite Laval, Canada (7) Universitat Mannheim, Germany (8) Insead (9) Academy of Sciences, Moscow (10) Nagoya University, Japan (11) University of the Aegean, Greece (12) Cornell University, USA Article History: Registration Date: 14/10/2004

Several models of household saving behavior have been proposed during this century (e.g., Becker, 1976; Friedman, 1957; Keynes, 1936). As was discussed by Winner and Lewis (1995), one of the [...]

The study reports the development of a short and easily administered questionnaire aiming at measuring dimensions of social life within neighborhoods. Principal-components analysis consistently extracted four factors replicated in three independent samples (N = 96 to 1,060). The factors emerged as theoretically meaningful dimensions tapping the concepts of supportive acts of neighboring; neighbor annoyance, neighborhood attachment, and weak social ties. Factor invariance and factor replicability were high. Internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and construct validity yielded acceptable results. The principal virtue of the measure is that it may be applied to discern qualitative differences between neighborhoods by simultaneous assessments of several dimensions of neighboring. KEY WORDS: multidimensional measure; factor analysis; neighborhoods; neighboring.

One hundred automobile owners were surveyed to determine if their intention to replace their automobiles is influenced by the gap between their assessment of the current quality of the automobile and their aspiration level. The study also sought to examine whether or not the timing of replacement purchases are affected by environmental concerns through an influence on the the owner's aspiration level. The results of the study are discussed.

A survey of the taxicab industry in Sweden eight months after it underwent deregulation was conducted. Results indicated that during this time period, not all the expectations of the proponents of deregulation have been achieved. While the number of taxis had increased because of the relief of entry constraints, the demand for them has not. This shows a decreased productivity per taxicab. Furthermore, fares were raised by taxicab operators as a way of recovering from the decrease in revenue.

Two groups of subjects with varying amounts of experience with the city in which they lived judged from memory distances between familiar locations. The distance judgments were processed by a multidimensional scaling algorithm (MULTISCALE) that estimates the parameters of a power function transformation of the response scale and the coordinates of the locations in k-dimensional euclidean space. The results for both subject groups suggested that inaccuracies of distance cognition do not reflect the noneuclidean nature of urban cognitive maps but are caused by response bias.

Previous research has shown that prior outcomes affect choices in an inconsistent way. As a consequence, for 12 male and 20 female undergraduates a prior loss decreased risk seeking at the end of a betting sequence, a time when people are believed to be more risk seeking.