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BACKGROUND: Midlife residential exposure to greenspace may slow cognitive decline by increasing opportunities for physical activity and social connection, restoring attention, or reducing stress or adverse environmental exposures. However, prospective studies on the association between greenness and cognitive decline are sparse. OBJECTIVE: We investigated the prospective association between greenness at midlife and cognitive decline later in life. We explored effect measure modification by apolipoprotein E (APOE)-ɛ4 carrier status, neighborhood socioeconomic status (NSES), and rural/urban regions. METHODS: The Nurses Health Study (N=121,700) started in 1976 with married female nurses, 30-55 years of age, located across 11 US states. We examined 16,962 nurses who were enrolled in a substudy starting in 1995-2001 (mean age=74y) through 2008. We assessed average summer residential greenness in a 270-m buffer using Landsat Normalized Difference Vegetation Index data from 1986-1994. Starting in 1995-2001, participants underwent up to four repeated measures of five cognitive tests. A global composite score was calculated as the average of all z-scores for each task to evaluate overall cognition. We used linear mixed models to evaluate the association of average greenness exposure at midlife with cognitive decline in later life, adjusted for age, education, NSES, and depression. RESULTS: In adjusted models, higher midlife greenness exposure [per interquartile range (IQR): 0.18] was associated with a 0.004-unit (95% CI: 0.001, 0.006) slower annual rate of cognitive decline. For comparison, we found that 1 year of age is related to a -0.006 mean annual difference for global cognition in the full sample; thus, higher midlife greenness appeared equivalent to slowing cognitive decline by ∼8 months. In analysis exploring gene-environment interactions, we found that among APOE-ɛ4 carriers, an IQR increase in greenness was associated with a rate of decline that was slower by 0.01 units of global composite score (95% CI: 0.0004, 0.02). This association was attenuated among APOE-ɛ4 noncarriers. We did not observe associations between greenness and baseline or annual rate of cognitive decline of verbal memory. DISCUSSION: Higher midlife greenness exposure is associated with slower cognitive decline later in life. Future research is necessary to confirm these findings. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP13588.

BACKGROUND: Midlife residential exposure to greenspace may slow cognitive decline by increasing opportunities for physical activity and social connection, restoring attention, or reducing stress or adverse environmental exposures. However, prospective studies on the association between greenness and cognitive decline are sparse. OBJECTIVE: We investigated the prospective association between greenness at midlife and cognitive decline later in life. We explored effect measure modification by apolipoprotein E (APOE)-E4 carrier status, neighborhood socioeconomic status (NSES), and rural/urban regions. METHODS: The Nurses' Health Study (N = 121,700) started in 1976 with married female nurses, 30-55 years of age, located across 11 US states. We examined 16,962 nurses who were enrolled in a substudy starting in 1995-2001 (mean age = 74 y) through 2008. We assessed average summer residential greenness in a 270-m buffer using Landsat Normalized Difference Vegetation Index data from 1986-1994. Starting in 1995-2001, participants underwent up to four repeated measures of five cognitive tests. A global composite score was calculated as the average of all z-scores for each task to evaluate overall cognition. We used linear mixed models to evaluate the association of average greenness exposure at midlife with cognitive decline in later life, adjusted for age, education, NSES, and depression. RESULTS: In adjusted models, higher midlife greenness exposure [per interquartile range (IQR): 0.18] was associated with a 0.004-unit (95% CI: 0.001, 0.006) slower annual rate of cognitive decline. For comparison, we found that 1 year of age is related to a -0.006 mean annual difference for global cognition in the full sample; thus, higher midlife greenness appeared equivalent to slowing cognitive decline by ~ 8 months. In analysis exploring gene--environment interactions, we found that among APOE-E4 carriers, an IQR increase in greenness was associated with a rate of decline that was slower by 0.01 units of global composite score (95% CI: 0.0004, 0.02). This association was attenuated among APOE-E4 noncarriers. We did not observe associations between greenness and baseline or annual rate of cognitive decline of verbal memory. DISCUSSION: Higher midlife greenness exposure is associated with slower cognitive decline later in life. Future research is necessary to confirm these findings. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP13588, Introduction Literature has suggested that Alzheimer's disease and related dementia (ADRD), the seventh leading cause of death in the United States, (1) may begin [greater than or equal to]20 y [...]

OBJECTIVE: Evidence suggests that greater social integration is related to lower mortality rates. However, studies among African-Americans are limited. We examined whether higher social integration was associated with lower mortality in 5306 African-Americans from the Jackson Heart Study, who completed the Berkman-Syme Social Network Index in 2000-2004 and were followed until 2018. METHODS: We estimated hazard ratios (HR) of mortality by categories of the Social Network Index (i.e., high social isolation, moderate social isolation [reference group], moderate social integration, high social integration) using Cox proportional hazard models. Covariates included baseline sociodemographics, depressive symptoms, health conditions, and health behaviors. RESULTS: Compared with moderate isolation, moderate integration was associated with an 11% lower mortality rate (HR = 0.89, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.77, 1.03), and high integration was associated with a 25% lower mortality rate (HR = 0.75, 95% CI 0.64, 0.87), controlling for sociodemographics and depressive symptoms; compared with moderate isolation, high isolation was related to a 34% higher mortality rate (HR = 1.34, 95% CI 1.00, 1.79). Further adjustment of potential mediators (health conditions and health behaviors) only slightly attenuated HRs (e.g., HRmoderate integration = 0.90, 95% CI 0.78, 1.05; HRhigh integration = 0.77, 95% CI 0.66, 0.89). CONCLUSION: Social integration may be a psychosocial health asset with future work needed to identify biobehavioral processes underlying observed associations with mortality among African-Americans.

Understanding the genomic basis of memory processes may help in combating neurodegenerative disorders. Hence, we examined the associations of common genetic variants with verbal short-term memory and verbal learning in adults without dementia or stroke (N = 53,637). We identified novel loci in the intronic region of CDH18, and at 13q21 and 3p21.1, as well as an expected signal in the APOE/APOC1/TOMM40 region. These results replicated in an independent sample. Functional and bioinformatic analyses supported many of these loci and further implicated POC1. We showed that polygenic score for verbal learning associated with brain activation in right parieto-occipital region during working memory task. Finally, we showed genetic correlations of these memory traits with several neurocognitive and health outcomes. Our findings suggest a role of several genomic loci in verbal memory processes.

BackgroundResearch has suggested optimism is associated with healthy aging and exceptional longevity, but most studies were conducted among non-Hispanic White populations. We examined associations of optimism to longevity across racial and ethnic groups and assessed healthy lifestyle as a possible mediating pathway.MethodsParticipants from the Women's Health Initiative (N = 159,255) completed a validated measure of optimism and provided other demographic and health data at baseline. We evaluated associations of optimism with increments in lifespan using accelerated failure time models, and with likelihood of exceptional longevity (survival to age ≥90) using Poisson regression models. Causal mediation analysis explored whether lifestyle-related factors mediated optimism-lifespan associations.ResultsAfter covariate adjustment, the highest versus lowest optimism quartile was associated with 5.4% (95% confidence interval [CI] = 4.5, 6.4%) longer lifespan. Within racial and ethnic subgroups, these estimates were 5.1% (95%CI = 4.0, 6.1%) in non-Hispanic White, 7.6% (95%CI = 3.6, 11.7%) in Black, 5.4% (95%CI = -0.1, 11.2%) in Hispanic/Latina, and 1.5% (95% CI = -5.0, 8.5) in Asian women. A high proportion (53%) of the women achieved exceptional longevity. Participants in the highest versus lowest optimism quartile had greater likelihood of achieving exceptional longevity (e.g., full sample risk ratio = 1.1, 95%CI = 1.1, 1.1). Lifestyle mediated 24% of the optimism-lifespan association in the full sample, 25% in non-Hispanic White, 10% in Black, 24% in Hispanic/Latina, and 43% in Asian women.ConclusionsHigher optimism was associated with longer lifespan and a greater likelihood of achieving exceptional longevity overall and across racial and ethnic groups. The contribution of lifestyle to these associations was modest. Optimism may promote health and longevity in diverse racial and ethnic groups. Future research should investigate these associations in less long-lived populations.

OBJECTIVES: Growing evidence supports optimism as a health asset, yet how optimism influences well-being and health remains uncertain. We evaluated 1 potential pathway-the association of optimism with daily stress processes-and tested 2 hypotheses. The stressor exposure hypothesis posits that optimism would preserve emotional well-being by limiting exposure to daily stressors. The buffering hypothesis posits that higher optimism would be associated with lower emotional reactivity to daily stressors and more effective emotional recovery from them. METHODS: Participants were 233 men from the Veterans Affairs Normative Aging Study who completed the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 Revised Optimism-Pessimism scale in 1986/1991 and participated in up to three 8-day daily diary bursts in 2002-2010 (age at first burst: M = 76.7, SD = 6.5). Daily stressor occurrence, positive affect (PA), and negative affect (NA) were assessed nightly. We evaluated the hypotheses using multilevel structural equation models. RESULTS: Optimism was unrelated to emotional reactivity to or recovery from daily stressors. Higher optimism was associated with higher average daily PA (B = 2.31, 95% Bayesian credible interval [BCI]: 1.24, 3.38) but not NA, independent of stressor exposure. Lower stressor exposure mediated the association of higher optimism with lower daily NA (indirect effect: B = -0.27, 95% BCI: -0.50, -0.09), supporting the stressor exposure hypothesis. DISCUSSION: Findings from a sample of older men suggest that optimism may be associated with more favorable emotional well-being in later life through differences in stressor exposure rather than emotional stress response. Optimism may preserve emotional well-being among older adults by engaging emotion regulation strategies that occur relatively early in the emotion-generative process.

BACKGROUND: Psychological factors (eg, depression) and related biological and behavioral responses are associated with numerous physical health outcomes. Most research in this area relies on self-reported assessments of psychological factors, which are difficult to scale because they may be expensive and time-consuming. Investigators are increasingly interested in using social media as a novel and convenient platform for obtaining information rapidly in large populations. OBJECTIVE: We evaluated the feasibility of obtaining Facebook data from a large ongoing cohort study of midlife and older women, which may be used to assess psychological functioning efficiently with low cost. METHODS: This study was conducted with participants in the Nurses Health Study II (NHSII), which was initiated in 1989 with biennial follow-ups. Facebook does not share data readily; therefore, we developed procedures to enable women to download and transfer their Facebook data to cohort servers (for linkage with other study data they have provided). Since privacy is a critical concern when collecting individual-level data, we partnered with a third-party software developer, Digi.me, to enable participants to obtain their own Facebook data and to send it securely to our research team. In 2020, we invited a subset of the 18,519 NHSII participants (aged 56-73 years) via email to participate. Women were selected if they reported on the 2017-2018 questionnaire that they regularly posted on Facebook and were still active cohort participants. We included an exit survey for those who chose not to participate in order to gauge the reasons for nonparticipation. RESULTS: We invited 309 women to participate. Few women signed the consent form (n=52), and only 3 used the Digi.me app to download and transfer their Facebook data. This low participation rate was observed despite modifying our protocol between waves of recruitment, including by (1) excluding active health care workers, who might be less available to participate due to the pandemic, (2) developing a Frequently Asked Questions factsheet to provide more information regarding the protocol, and (3) simplifying the instructions for using the Digi.me app. On our exit survey, the reasons most commonly reported for not participating were concerns regarding data privacy and hesitation sharing personal Facebook posts. The low participation rate suggests that obtaining individual-level Facebook data in a cohort of middle-aged and older women may be challenging. CONCLUSIONS: In this cohort of midlife and older women who were actively participating for over three decades, we were largely unable to obtain permission to access individual-level data from participants Facebook accounts. Despite working with a third-party developer to customize an app to implement safeguards for privacy, data privacy remained a key concern in these women. Future studies aiming to leverage individual-level social media data should explore alternate populations or means of sharing social media data.

BackgroundDespite evidence linking posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, and head injury, separately, with worse cognitive performance, investigations of their combined effects on cognition are limited in civilian women.MethodsThe Cogstate Brief Battery assessment was administered in 10,681 women from the Nurses' Health Study II cohort, mean age 64.9 years (SD = 4.6). Psychological trauma, PTSD, depression, and head injury were assessed using online questionnaires. In this cross-sectional analysis, we used linear regression models to estimate mean differences in cognition by PTSD/depression status and stratified by history of head injury.ResultsHistory of head injury was prevalent (36%), and significantly more prevalent among women with PTSD and depression (57% of women with PTSD and depression, 21% of women with no psychological trauma or depression). Compared to having no psychological trauma or depression, having combined PTSD and depression was associated with worse performance on psychomotor speed/attention ( β  = -.15, p = .001) and learning/working memory ( β  = -.15, p

Cognitive function at middle age is of particular public health interest, as it strongly predicts later dementia. Children who have experienced abuse subsequently have worse cognitive function than those who have not. However, it remains unclear whether the association of abuse with cognitive function persists into middle age. In 2014-2016, 14,151 women ages 49-69 years who had previously responded to a childhood abuse questionnaire completed a cognitive battery. In models adjusted for childhood socioeconomic status and head trauma, combined physical, emotional, and sexual abuse was associated with lower scores on both Learning/Working Memory (severe abuse, lower scores similar to that observed in women 4.8 years older in our data) and Psychomotor Speed/Attention (severe abuse, lower scores similar to that observed in women to 2.9 years older in our data). Adjustment for adulthood socioeconomic status and health factors (e.g., smoking, hypertension) slightly attenuated associations. In exploratory analyses further adjusted for psychological distress, associations were attenuated. Women exposed versus unexposed to childhood abuse had poorer cognitive function at mid-life. Associations were particularly strong for learning and working memory and were not accounted for by adulthood health factors. Childhood abuse should be investigated as a potential risk factor for cognitive decline and dementia in old age.

Optimism is associated with reduced mortality risk among Whites, but evidence for this relationship is limited among African-Americans, whose life expectancy is shorter than Whites. This study examined the association between optimism and mortality rate in African-Americans. Data were from African-American women (n = 2652) and men (n = 1444) in the United States from the Jackson Heart Study. Optimism was measured using the Life Orientation Test-Revised at the baseline period (2000-2004), and mortality data were obtained until 2018. Using Cox proportional hazards models, we estimated hazard ratios (HRs) of mortality by optimism level, controlling for sociodemographic factors, depressive symptoms, health conditions, and health behaviors. In secondary analyses, we evaluated potential effect modification by sex, age, income, and education. Higher optimism was related to lower mortality rates (HR = 0.85, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.74, 0.99), controlling for sociodemographic factors and depressive symptoms. After further adjusting for health conditions and health behaviors, associations were slightly attenuated (HR = 0.89; 95%CI = 0.77, 1.02). Stronger associations between optimism and mortality were observed in men, among those with higher income or education, and with age ≤ 55 (all ps for interaction terms

Background & aimsGallbladder cancer (GBC) is known to have a female predominance while other biliary tract cancers (BTCs) have a male predominance. However, the role of female reproductive factors in BTC etiology remains unclear.MethodsWe pooled data from 19 studies of >1.5 million women participating in the Biliary Tract Cancers Pooling Project to examine the associations of parity, age at menarche, reproductive years, and age at menopause with BTC. Associations for age at menarche and reproductive years with BTC were analyzed separately for Asian and non-Asian women. Hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% CIs were estimated using Cox proportional hazards models, stratified by study.ResultsDuring 21,681,798 person-years of follow-up, 875 cases of GBC, 379 of intrahepatic bile duct cancer (IHBDC), 450 of extrahepatic bile duct cancer (EHBDC), and 261 of ampulla of Vater cancer (AVC) occurred. High parity was associated with risk of GBC (HR ≥5 vs. 0 births 1.72; 95% CI 1.25-2.38). Age at menarche (HR per year increase 1.15; 95% CI 1.06-1.24) was associated with GBC risk in Asian women while reproductive years were associated with GBC risk (HR per 5 years 1.13; 95% CI 1.04-1.22) in non-Asian women. Later age at menarche was associated with IHBDC (HR 1.19; 95% CI 1.09-1.31) and EHBDC (HR 1.11; 95% CI 1.01-1.22) in Asian women only.ConclusionWe observed an increased risk of GBC with increasing parity. Among Asian women, older age at menarche was associated with increased risk for GBC, IHBDC, and EHBDC, while increasing reproductive years was associated with GBC in non-Asian women. These results suggest that sex hormones have distinct effects on cancers across the biliary tract that vary by geography.Lay summaryOur findings show that the risk of gallbladder cancer is increased among women who have given birth (especially women with 5 or more children). In women from Asian countries, later age at menarche increases the risk of gallbladder cancer, intrahepatic bile duct cancer and extrahepatic bile duct cancer. We did not see this same association in women from Western countries. Age at menopause was not associated with the risk of any biliary tract cancers.

With advances in natural language processing and machine learning, researchers are leveraging social media as a low-cost, low-burden method for measuring various psychosocial factors. However, it is unclear whether information derived from social media is generalizable to broader populations, especially middle-aged and older adults. Using data on women aged 53-70 years from Nurses Health Study II (2017-2018; n = 49,045), we assessed differences in sociodemographic characteristics, health conditions, behaviors, and psychosocial factors between regular and nonregular users of Facebook (Facebook, Inc., Menlo Park, California). We evaluated effect sizes with phi (φ) coefficients (categorical data) or Cohens d (continuous data) and calculated odds ratios with 95% confidence intervals. While most comparisons between regular and nonregular users achieved statistical significance in this large sample, effect sizes were mostly very small (conventionally defined as φ or d

ObjectiveMounting evidence suggests that higher optimism is associated with reduced risk of age-related morbidities and premature mortality. However, possible biological mechanisms underlying these associations remain understudied. One hypothesized mechanism is a slower rate of cellular aging, which in turn delays age-related declines in health.MethodsWe used data from two large cohort studies to test the hypothesis that higher optimism is associated with longer leukocyte telomere length. With cross-sectional data from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS; n = 6417; mean age = 70 years) and the Women's Health Initiative (WHI; N = 3582; mean age = 63 years), we used linear regression models to examine the association of optimism with relative telomere length (assessed in leukocytes from saliva [HRS] or plasma [WHI]). Models adjusted for sociodemographics, depression, health status, and health behaviors.ResultsConsidering both optimism and telomere length as continuous variables, we found consistently null associations in both cohorts, regardless of which covariates were included in the models. In models adjusting for demographics, depression, comorbidities, and health behaviors, optimism was not associated with mean relative telomere length (HRS: β = -0.002, 95% confidence interval = -0.014 to 0.011; WHI: β = -0.004, 95% confidence interval = -0.017 to 0.009).ConclusionsFindings do not support mean telomere length as a mechanism that explains observed relations of optimism with reduced risk of chronic disease in older adults. Future research is needed to evaluate other potential biological markers and pathways.

Most research on exceptional longevity has investigated biomedical factors associated with survival, but recent work suggests nonbiological factors are also important. Thus, we tested whether higher optimism was associated with longer life span and greater likelihood of exceptional longevity. Data are from 2 cohorts, women from the Nurses Health Study (NHS) and men from the Veterans Affairs Normative Aging Study (NAS), with follow-up of 10 y (2004 to 2014) and 30 y (1986 to 2016), respectively. Optimism was assessed using the Life Orientation Test-Revised in NHS and the Revised Optimism-Pessimism Scale from the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 in NAS. Exceptional longevity was defined as survival to age 85 or older. Primary analyses used accelerated failure time models to assess differences in life span associated with optimism; models adjusted for demographic confounders and health conditions, and subsequently considered the role of health behaviors. Further analyses used logistic regression to evaluate the likelihood of exceptional longevity. In both sexes, we found a dose-dependent association of higher optimism levels at baseline with increased longevity (P trend < 0.01). For example, adjusting for demographics and health conditions, women in the highest versus lowest optimism quartile had 14.9% (95% confidence interval, 11.9 to 18.0) longer life span. Findings were similar in men. Participants with highest versus lowest optimism levels had 1.5 (women) and 1.7 (men) greater odds of surviving to age 85; these relationships were maintained after adjusting for health behaviors. Given work indicating optimism is modifiable, these findings suggest optimism may provide a valuable target to test for strategies to promote longevity.

Greater levels of psychological well-being are associated with reduced disease and mortality risk, and lifestyle habits may be potential mechanisms underlying these relationships. Prospective studies show that positive psychological factors enhance the likelihood of adopting specific health behaviors; yet, whether they promote the adoption of multiple healthy behaviors, which can have a multiplicative effect on disease and mortality risk compared to individual behaviors, is unknown. We investigated whether happiness and optimism were related to a healthy lifestyle (characterized by multiple health behaviors) over 10-22 years of follow-up; we also explored bidirectional associations, assessing if a healthy lifestyle at baseline was related to greater likelihood of experiencing higher happiness and optimism over time. Women reported levels of happiness in 1992 (N = 52,133) and optimism in 2004 (N = 36,802). Health-related behaviors (physical activity, body mass index, diet, alcohol and tobacco consumption) were self-reported and combined into a lifestyle score, every four years from baseline until 2014. Multivariable generalized estimating equations with a Poisson distribution were used. Women with moderate and higher (versus lower) happiness levels were more likely to report sustaining healthy lifestyles (RR = 1.18, CI = 1.11-1.25; RR = 1.39, CI = 1.32-1.46, respectively). In secondary analyses, the magnitude of the inverse association was somewhat smaller (likelihood of sustaining higher happiness levels for baseline healthy versus unhealthy lifestyle, RR = 1.11, CI = 1.10-1.12). Results were similar when considering optimism as the exposure and in other secondary analyses (e.g., across individual habits). While bidirectional associations are apparent, these findings suggest pursuing happiness and optimism as modifiable determinants of lifestyle deserves further consideration.

INTRODUCTION: There is limited evidence about factors related to the timeliness of dementia diagnosis in healthcare settings. METHODS: In five prospective cohorts at Rush Alzheimer's Disease Center, we identified participants with incident dementia based on annual assessments and examined the timing of healthcare diagnoses in Medicare claims. We assessed sociodemographic, health, and psychosocial correlates of timely diagnosis. RESULTS: Of 710 participants, 385 (or 54%) received a timely claims diagnosis within 3 years prior to or 1 year following dementia onset. In logistic regressions accounting for demographics, we found Black participants (odds ratio [OR] = 2.15, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.21 to 3.82) and those with better cognition at dementia onset (OR = 1.48, 95% CI: 1.10 to 1.98) were at higher odds of experiencing a diagnostic delay, whereas participants with higher income (OR = 0.89, 95% CI: 0.81 to 0.97) and more comorbidities (OR = 0.94, 95% CI: 0.89 to 0.98) had lower odds. DISCUSSION: We identified characteristics of individuals who may miss the optimal window for dementia treatment and support. Highlights: We compared the timing of healthcare diagnosis relative to the timing of incident dementia based on rigorous annual evaluation.Older Black adults with lower income, higher cognitive function, and fewer comorbidities were less likely to be diagnosed in a timely manner by the healthcare system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Associations of stress-related coping strategies with lifespan among the general population are understudied. Coping strategies are characterized as being either adaptive or maladaptive, but it is unknown the degree to which variability in tailoring their implementation to different contexts may influence lifespan. Women (N = 54,353; Mage = 47) completed a validated coping inventory and reported covariate information in 2001. Eight individual coping strategies (e.g., Acceptance, Denial) were considered separately. Using a standard deviation-based algorithm, participants were also classified as having lower, moderate, or greater variability in their use of these strategies. Deaths were ascertained until 2019. Accelerated failure time models estimated percent changes and 95% confidence intervals (CI) in predicted lifespan associated with coping predictors. In multivariable models, most adaptive and maladaptive strategies were associated with longer and shorter lifespans, respectively (e.g., per 1-SD increase: Active Coping = 4.09%, 95%CI = 1.83%, 6.41%; Behavioral Disengagement = −6.56%, 95%CI = −8.37%, −4.72%). Moderate and greater (versus lower) variability levels were similarly and significantly related to 8-10% longer lifespans. Associations were similar across age, racial/ethnic, residential income, and marital status subgroups. Findings confirm the adaptive and maladaptive nature of specific coping strategies, and further suggest benefits from both moderate and greater variability in their use for lifespan among women. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

IntroductionWe examined the association between endogenous sex hormones and both objective and subjective measures of cognitive function.MethodsWe followed 3044 women up to 23 years in a prospective cohort study. We measured plasma levels of estrone, estrone sulfate, estradiol, androstenedione, testosterone, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S) in 1989-1990, conducted neuropsychologic testing in 1999-2008, and inquired about subjective cognition in 2012.ResultsOverall, we observed little relation between plasma levels of hormones and either neuropsychologic test performance or subjective cognition. However, after adjustment for age and education, we observed a borderline significant association of higher levels of plasma estrone with higher scores for both overall cognition (P trend = .10) and verbal memory (P trend = .08).DiscussionThere were no clear associations of endogenous hormone levels at midlife and cognition in later life, although a suggested finding of higher levels of plasma estrone associated with better cognitive function merits further research.